
Class. 
Book.. 



"DF 



GopigM . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A Teachers' Manual 



OF 



English Grammar and 
Analysis 



By 



Hiram Roy Wilson, A. M., Litt. D. 

Head Department of English, State Normal 

College of Ohio University, 

Athens, Ohio. 



Athens, Ohio: 

Published by THE OHIO TEACHER, 

1912. 






COPYRIGHTED 

By Hiram R. Wilson 
1912 



£fiU327331 



Preparatory Note 



In the preparation of this manual the author has drawn 
occasionally upon sentences found in such standard texts 
as Whitney's Essentials of English, Harvey's New School 
Grammar, Holbrook's New English Gammar, Reed and 
Kellogg's Higher Lessons in English, Maxwell's English 
Grammar, Baskerville and SewelFs English Grammar. In 
some instances specific credit is given to the text-hook from 
which the sentence is taken. For the sake of convenience 
the names of the author or authors are frequently ab- 
breviated. 

H. R. W. 

Ohio University, June 29, 1912. 



A Teachers' Manual of English 
Grammar and Analysis 



CHAPTER I. 

The Complex Sentence 

A complex sentence is one that contains a principal, or 
independent clause, and one or more subordinate clauses. 

A clause is a part of a sentence having a subject and a 
predicate. 

Clauses may be classified as to rank and as to meaning, 
or use. 

Classified as to rank, clauses are principal and subordi- 
nate; sometimes the words independent and dependent are 
used. 

The term principal is more accurate than independent, 
hence in this manual its use is preferred. As a rule, clauses 
are rarely independent. Occasionally such a construction 
occurs. In the sentence, He runs, as it were, on the wings 
of the wind, the clause, as it were, is strictly independent; 
that is, it has no grammatical connection, whatever, with 
the remainder of the sentence. It should be construed as 
a clause used independently. 

Classified as to meaning, or use, clauses are nounal, 
adjectival, and adverbial. 

The Noun Clause 

A noun clause is one performing the office of a noun. 

It may have most of the ordinary uses of a noun, but 
not all. For instance, a noun clause cannot be used as a 
possessive modifier. It is true that an adjective clause 
may be introduced by the relative whose, but whose as a 
word is in the possessive case, not the entire clause. 
Again, a noun clause cannot be used in an independent 
manner by direct address. 



6 A Teachers' Manual 

The noun clause may be used in a sentence as subject, 
attribute complement, or subjective complement, object 
complement, objective complement, object of a preposition, 
and an appositive. 

The noun clause as subject: (1) That he is honest is 
evident. (2) Where is he? was heard on all sides. (3) 
When he is to go is of great interest to him. (4) That you 
have wronged me doth appear in this. (5) That the earth 
is round is beyond question. 

In sentences (1), (4), and (5), that is used as an intro- 
ductory conjunction. Although it is a subordinate con- 
junction, it is best designated by the words introductory 
conjunction. In these sentences the noun clause is the 
subordinate clause. It appears, then, that the subordinate 
clause is more complete in meaning than is the principal. 
The reason for this unusual situation is that the predicate 
of the principal clause in sentence (1), is evident, plus the 
subject of the clause, that he is honest, is equal to the 
entire sentence. In other words, here is a type of sentence 
in which the subject of the principal clause and its predi- 
cate are equal to the entire sentence. This arises from 
the fact that the subject of the principal clause is a noun 
clause — the subordinate clause of the sentence. Yet in 
analysis, such a sentence as the above may be spoken 
of as a complex sentence, with a noun clause as the subject. 

The noun clause as attribute, or predicate complement: 

(1) Our misfortune is, we are too acute. 

(2) The question with me is, whether it is not your in- 
terest to make them happy. 

(3) The triumph of my soul is that I am. (W.) 

(4) The truth is that the Cecils disliked him. 

In sentence (2), whether is used as an introductory con- 
junction; that in (3) and (4) is likewise construed. 
The noun clause as object complement: 

(1) My son, say unto Wisdom, Thou art my sister. 

(2) Say not, What use is there of me? 

(3) She thought that she was no longer in Africa, but in 
her own Greece. 

(4) I wish that all the year were a holiday. 



English Grammar and Analysis 7 

(5) The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God. 

(6) See what a rent the envious Casca made. 

(7) I would I were like them. — Bryant. 

Here would must be taken as the equivalent of wish. 

(8) Seeing" that he was wrong, the man retracted. 

(9) He came in time to learn that he was to receive the 
reward. 

In (8) the clause is the object of a participle; in (9), the 
object of an infinitive. 

The noun clause as objective complement: 

(1) Let it be who it may. 

In this sentence, you understood is the subject; let, the 
verb, or incomplete predicate; it, the object complement; 
the infinitive to be, the object complement to be com- 
pleted by the noun clause who it may. Of this clause it 
is the subject; may be (be must be supplied), the incom- 
plete predicate; who, the attribute complement. In idio- 
matic English few sentences of this construction occur. 

The noun clause as object of a preposition: 

(1) There was no doubt about who should go. 

(2) He was successful in that he remained faithful. 

(3) They were confident that he would come. 

(4) They were afraid that the boat would be destroyed. 
In sentences (2), (3), and (4), that is an introductory 

conjunction. In (3) and (4) the subordinate clauses have 
the construction of a noun the object of a preposition 
understood; the prepositional phrase in each case limits 
the attribute in the principal clause. 

In this connection an important law may be given: 

Clauses following such attributes as confident, anxious, 
sorry, afraid, desirous, sure, positive, and similar words 
indicating states of mind have the construction of noun 
clauses, the object of a preposition understood. 

The noun clause as an appositive: 

(1) In apposition with the subject: It was proved that 
he was honest. The advice, When in Rome, do as the 
Romans do, came from St. Augustine. And herein is that 
saying true, one soweth and another reapeth. 



8 A Teachers'' Manual 

(2) In apposition with the attribute: His last words 
were these: "Be a good man." 

(3<) In apposition with the object: This I say, then, 
Walk in the Spirit. 

(4) We had a hope that the messages would not be 
lost. 

In the second sentence under group (1), the noun clause : 
"When in Rome," etc., is complex. The subject of the 
principal clause is you understood; do, the predicate, is 
limited by two subordinate clauses: the first, "When you 
are in Rome," denotes time; the second, "as the Romans 
do," denotes manner. These two adverbial clauses have 
no connection with each other, though each one modifies 
do of the principal clause. 

The Adjective Clause 

An adjective clause is one performing the office of an 
adjective. In the following sentences the progress from 
the mere adjective through the adjective phrase to the 
adjective clause is easily seen: 

A wealthy man lives there. 
A man of wealth lives there. 
A. man who is wealthy lives there. 
This relation is not so clearly apparent in all adjective 
ideas. Often there is no simple adjective phrase exactly 
equivalent. This can be noted in the following: 
He took a white hat. 
He took a hat, which was white. 
A sentence having the idea in a phrase might read, "He 
took a hat of a white color." 

For rhetorical purposes adjective clauses are divided into 
two general classes: restrictive and non-restrictive. 

The Restrictive Clause 

A restrictive clause is one that limits in a definite man- 
ner the antecedent in the principal clause; it is used to 
point out. The restrictive clause cannot be omitted with- 
out changing the meaning of the sentence. 



English Grammar and Analysis 9 

Restrictive clauses: 

(1) He took the hat that was white. 

(2) Air that is impure should be avoided. 

(3) Coats that are light in weight are not very service- 
able in winter. 

(4) Books that are easily handled are very attractive. 
(5 1 ) Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? 

(6) He that soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly. 

(7) Write me as one that loves his fellow-men. 

In each of the above sentences the connection between 
the subordinate clause and its antecedent is very close. No 
comma is used to separate them. If in any case the re- 
strictive clause were dropped, the remainder of the sen- 
tence would be quite incomplete. 

In sentences (2) and (3) the omission of the adjective 
clauses would utterly destroy the sense. 

In such as (1) and (6) the function of the clause is to 
point out. In (1) there was only one white hat, and "He" 
took it. In (6) it is only a certain type of person that 
reaps sparingly; viz., one that sows sparingly, as the sub- 
ordinate clause indicates. 

As a rule that is the relative used to introduce the re- 
strictive clause. Sometimes for purposes of clearness and 
euphony who or which is used instead of it. There are 
many writers who do not observe this distinction between 
these two general classes of adjective clauses. 

The Non-restrictive Clause 

A non-restrictive clause is one that does not restrict the 
application of the antecedent term, but is used to add a 
fact about it. This kind of clause is almost parenthetical 
in force, and can be omitted without impairing the mean- 
ing. 

The non-restrictive clause is usually introduced by who 
or which. It is equivalent to a co-ordinate clause joined by 
and and having some pronoun as subject. In the sentence, 
He bought a hat, which was white, the subordinate clause 
is really equivalent to and it was white. As far as the 



10 A Teachers' Manual 

meaning goes, the sentence might read, He bought a hat, 
and it was white. 

Sentences having nan-restrictive clauses: 

(1) Time, which is precious, should not be wasted. 

(2) Steamboats, which are a modern invention, carry 

much of our traffic. 

(3) Cotton, which is a plant, is raised in the South. 

(4) Coal, which is a mineral, is extensively mined in 

Ohio and Pennsylvania. 

(5) He gave the letter to John, who gave it to Charles. 

(6) He bought a horse, which was gray. 

In sentences (1), (2), (3) and (4), the non-restrictive 
clause is almost parenthetical in force. In (5) and (6) the 
subordinate clauses are plainly equal in meaning to co- 
ordinate ones beginning respectively with and he and 
and it. 

Some writers on grammar do not hesitate to call such 
complex sentences as (5) and (6) compound. In realitv 
as far as the meaning goes, the sentence is compound; 
but from the standpoint of form, the sentence is complex. 
It seems, on the whole, less confusing to call those sen- 
tences and kindred constructions complex. 

Adjective clauses may be introduced by relative pronouns 
and by conjunctive adverbs. 

Conjunctive adverbs used to introduce an adjective 
clause are often called relative adverbs. All the adjective 
clauses given in the preceding sentences are introduced 
by relative pronouns. The following sentences contain 
adjective clauses introduced by conjunctive adverbs: 

(1) Autumn is the time when the harvest is gathered. 

(2) He came at a time when he was least expected. 

(3) I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 

(4) There is the park where the children play. 

(5) Yonder is the spot where the hero fell. 

(fi) This is the book wherein each may read his fate. 

(7) Here is the weapon wherewith he wrought such 

havoc. 

(8) We know the means whereby he lives. 



English Grammar and Analysis 11 

(9) He gave no reason why he was absent. 

(10) They knew the source whence it all came. 

(11) We came unto the land .whither thou sentest us. 

(12) The way is not clear how they are to proceed- 
This idiomatic use of how is now obsolete. 

In each of the foregoing sentences the conjunctive ad- 
verb modifies the verb in the subordinate clause; the 
clause itself as a clause modifies some word in the prin- 
cipal clause. The conjunctive adverb as a word plainly 
cannot modify the noun in the principal clause, as con- 
junctive adverbs do not modify nouns. Yet it is a part of a 
clause that does so modify. For example, in sentence (1) 
when limits is gathered and joins the subordinate clause 
to time; the entire clause, when the harvest is gathered, 
limits time. 

This is seen by expanding the sentence to its gram- 
matical equivalent: Autumn is the time in which the 
harvest is gathered; when, therefore, is equivalent to in 
which, and would be construed in the same manner. In the 
expanded sentence, then, in which modifies is gathered; 
the relative which has as its antecedent the word time in 
the principal clause and to this antecedent joins the sub- 
ordinate clause; in the original sentence precisely the same 
disposal was made of when. 

It is interesting to note how language developed the use 
of the relative pronoun. There is a time in the intellectual 
history of a person or of a race when compound sentences 
seem to supply as a means of expression the demands of 
thought. As ideas and thoughts are more clearly and 
accurately apprehended, they are not so likely to be co- 
ordinated; they vary in importance. Most early prose 
expressions, like the talk of children, are profusely con- 
nected by and. A little later on, the race and the child 
learn the intelligent application of when, where, because, 
unless, although, etc. 

The relative pronoun easily dispensed with co-ordina- 
tion, but its very name hints of the co-ordination the rela- 
tive supplanted. In the sentence, "Youth is the time in 
which the seeds of character are sown," the relative which 



12 A Teachers' Manual 

relates, or connects, the clauses, and at the same time 
stands for some noun; it is therefore a relative, or con- 
nective pronoun. The sentence might be awkwardly 
paraphrased to read, Youth is the time, and the seeds 
of character are sown in that time; the word which is 
the equivalent of and and time in the second member. 
Since which really performs the force of and and time, it 
has two forces: that of a connective, or relative, and that 
of a pronoun. Some writers call the relative pronoun a 
conjunctive pronoun. 

What Adjective Clauses Modify 

An adjective clause may modify, 

(1) The subject: 

A poet who creates an image of beauty in the mind 
imparts knowledge and power to others. 

(2) The object: 

In ancient and also in modern periods we find a few 
poets who are accounted perfect. 

(3) The objective complement: 

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men. As is an 
introductory conjunction, introducing the objective com- 
plement. 

(4) The object of a preposition: 
Blessings on him that first invented sleep. 

(5) The attribute complement: 

Is this the face that launched a thousand ships? 
It is the truth that maketh man free. 

(6) The object of an infinitive: 

To read books that carry messages was his first aim. 

(7) The object of a participle: 

Believing the report that had just been brought, he 
hastened out into the storm. 

(8) A word used independently by direct address: 

(a) Men who are oppressed! strike for your altars. 

(b) Go, little book, whose pages hold 
Those garnered years in loving trust. 



English Grammar and Analysis 13 

(c) O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my 
fathers! 

(9) A word used independently by exclamation: 
(a) Oh, the days that are no more! 

(10) A word used independently in an absolute phrase; 
i. e., with a participle: 

(a) The work, which cost many hours of patience, hav- 
ing been finished, we gave ourselves over to pleasure. 

(b) The prisoner, who was just here, having escaped, 
officers started in pursuit. 

The Adjective Clause with the Antecedent Omitted 

Oftimes in an adjective clause the antecedent is 
omitted; for purposes of analysis no attempt need be made 
to supply this antecedent. It is sufficient to indicate that 
the clause modifies some antecedent understood. Such 
sentences as "He spoke what was true" and "He did what 
was right" may be taken for illustration. The clauses 
what was true and what was right are adjective clauses 
limiting some omitted antecedent terms the objects of the 
respective principal clause verbs — spoke and did. In each 
sentence what is a relative pronoun, the subject of the 
subordinate clause. 

Similar to the foregoing sentences are ones having a 
clause that may be looked upon as having the force of a 
noun. It is not easy in every case to decide as to which is 
the preferred method of analysis. In the sentence, "What- 
ever is, is right," the subordinate clause "Whatever is" 
may be called a noun clause the subject of the verb is; 
whatever, an indefinite pronoun. However, many writers 
prefer to call "Whatever is" an adjective clause. Either 
view is well authorized. The two opinions result from 
two methods of looking at the sentence, either of which 
is sufficient to develop its meaning. The teacher or the 
student may remember that as long as analysis adequately 
sets forth the meaning of a sentence, he is not without 
strong justification for his opinion. 

For another example take the following: (1) What 
books he read were good, and (2) What friends he had 



14 A Teachers' Manual 

were- honest. In both these sentences the relative pre- 
cedes its antecedent. By slight transposition the first 
sentence may read, "(The) hooks what he read were good"'; 
what he read is the subordinate clause limiting books. 
Sentence (2) is similarly analyzed. 

The Noun Clause Often Mistaken for the 
Adjective Clause 

In the following sentences the noun force of the sub- 
ordinate clauses is apparent: (1-) "They inquired who he 
was"; (2) "They asked what he wanted"; (3) "They in- 
quired what he did." In each case the subordinate clause 
is treated ' as a noun clause containing an interrogative 
pronoun. In (1) who is the attribute after was; who he 
was is an indirect question, i. e., a direct question expressed 
in an indirect manner. The real meaning of sentence (1) 
is, "They asked, 'Who was he?' " Who, when put in an 
indirect quotation form does not lose its interrogative 
force. It would be wholly misleading to call who a relative 
in U). In each of the sentences given, the subordinate 
clause, when arranged in the direct quotation form, will 
be seen to contain an interrogative pronoun, not a relative. 
Each clause, then, will be used as a noun clause the object 
of the principal clause verb. 

A good law whereby to test the pronouns in sentences 
like the preceding is, Arrange the sentence so that the 
subordinate clause is in the form of a direct quotation; if 
the pronoun is interrogative in the direct arrangement, it 
may be likewise disposed of in the indirect quotation. 

In such a sentence as "They know who he is" the sub- 
ordinate clause may be treated as a noun clause, the ob- 
ject of know; who is an interrogative pronoun. The above 
law really operates in this case, but not so apparently. 
The sentence does not mean, "They know the person who 
he is," but rather means, "They know the answer of the 
question, "Who is he?" Another example: "There is no 
doubt as to who should go." Who should go is a noun 
clause the object of the phrase preposition as to. The sen- 
tence is seen to mean, by applying the law, "There is no 



English Grammar and Analysis 15 

doubt as to <the answer of the question, 'Who should go?" " 
In "This was a challenge to whoever loves his country," 
whoever is a relative pronoun. Here the sentence does not 
present an indirect question or quotation, nor can it be so 
arranged as to present it. To all appearances this sentence 
may resemble the preceding one, but the real meaning is, 
"This was a challenge to any person who loves his coun- 
try." There is no difficulty to supply the antecedent, and 
no loss to the meaning when it is supplied. 

Further Observations on the Adjective Clause 

In many sentences the adjective clause is separated from 
its antecedent by transposition. In "She was blind that I 
spoke to" the sentence may be transposed to read "She 
that I spoke to was blind." In "It is to you that I speak" 
a similar transposition may be made: "It is you that I 
speak to." Here the clause that I speak to is an adjective 
clause modifying you. Another view is taken of this same 
sentence; namely, that the subordinate clause is a noun 
clause in apposition with it. (R. & K.) This opinion is 
justified by giving the sentence this meaning, "My speaking 
is to you." This disposition of the sentence is not so satis- 
factory from a pedagogical standpoint as to treat the sub- 
ordinate clause as an adjective element, because the ad- 
j°ctive force of the clause is much more easily felt, and it 
more quickly and clearly arrives at the meaning of the 
sentence. 

Often the relative in the possessive case joins the prin- 
cipal and subordinate clauses. The relative whose is the 
only relative which can modify directly a word in the 
subordinate clause. In "The boy whose book was lost had 
a poor lesson," whose modifies book, and joins the clause 
to boy, the antecedent of the relative. Just as who and 
which may be used as interrogative pronouns in indirect 
questions as was shown above, so whose may be used. 
This sentence will illustrate: "We know whose book is 
lost." Here whose is an interrogative pronoun in a noun 
clause, which expresses an indirect question. "I know 
whose friend you are," belongs to the same class of sen- 



16 A Teachers' Manual 

tence. It does not mean "I know the person whose friend 
you are"; whose is not a relative, hut an interrogative pro- 
noun, having an indefinite antecedent. 

The word as is often used as a pronoun; as such it 
usually follows the words such, many, and same. Some 
writers prefer to disregard this use of as, and offer for 
the relative pronoun use an explanation making it a con- 
junctive adverb. 

Example: Such as he will go. "Such will go" is the 
principal clause; "as he is," the subordinate; as may be 
called a relative pronoun, having the nominative case, the 
attribute after is, and joining the subordinate clause to 
such. The other view would make as a conjunctive adverb 
of manner, limiting will go and is, and joining the clause to 
will go. This interpretation seems stilted and quite in- 
direct in force. 

Example: As many as came were healed. 

As came is the subordinate clause limiting many; as 
is a relative, the subject of came. The other opinion would 
have the sentence expanded to "As many as those are who 
came were healed," and would call the second as an adverb 
of degree. The attempt to justify this seems awkward and 
difficult. 

Example: He is the same as he has always been. 

As is the attribute after has been, and as a relative 
pronoun, connects the subordinate clause to same, the 
attribute in the principal clause. 

The Adjective Clause with the Relative Omitted 

In many sentences the relative has to be supplied. Al- 
though it is correct English to omit the relative, yet 
idiomatic expression tends to use it. 

Examples: (1) He did it in the time you take to breathe. 

(2) The themes it offers for contemplation are too vast 
for their capacities. (B. & S.) 

(3) From the moment you lose sight of the land you 
have left, all is vacancy. 

In (1) that should be supplied; it is the object of take, 



English Grammar and Analysis 17 

and joins the adjective clause to time. In (2) that is the 
relative, and is the object of offers; the antecedent is 
themes. In the third sentence "From the moment you lose 
sight of land, all is vacancy" is the principal clause; the 
subordinate clause, [that] "you have left" limits land; the 
supplied relative that is the object of have left. 

Again, it happens that the relative must be expanded 
into a grammatical equivalent. 

Examples: (1) Grouchy did not arrive at the time Na- 
poleon most needed him. (R. & K.) 

(2) He did most of his work in the time that you come 
and go. 

In (1) that must be expanded into in which; in (2) a 
similar expansion is made. The second reads, when ex- 
panded, "He did most of his work in the time in which 
you come and go"; in which modifies the compound predi- 
cate come and go; the antecedent of which is time. In 
sentence (1) in which modifies needed; the antecedent of 
which is time. 

Oftimes the student will save himself from much diffi- 
culty by remembering that the relative pronoun must come 
in the subordinate clause; and that if it is preceded by a 
preposition, the phrase must modify some word in the sub- 
ordinate clause. Usually such a phrase modifies the verb in 
the subordinate clause; sometimes, however, it may modify 
the attribute or an adverb in this clause. In the sentence, 
"This is a garden in which the flowers grow," in which 
modifies grow; this sentence is equivalent to "This is a 
garden, and flowers grow in it." The phrase in it limits 
grow; in which (garden) likewise modifies; which has con- 
nective, or relative force and joins the clause to garden. 
Its -relative force comes through the fact that the words 
in which are the grammatical equivalent of and ... in it. 

The question arises as to whether or not it is correct to 
have a clause the antecedent of a relative, pronoun. On 
this point it may be said that the feeling of the best 
modern stylists is that such a construction had better be 
avoided. The leading works on rhetoric and good usage are 



18 A Teachers' Manual 

against it. Many examples of it may be found, but at 
present they are not widely authorized. 

Examples: (1) "The searchers took the child home, 
which afforded great relief to the anguished parents." 

(2) "The boy closed the shutters, which darkened the 
room." 

(3) "He felt his heart beating faster, which greatly 
alarmed him." 

In each of the above examples the relative has a clause 
for its antecedent. Yet in each sentence, the construction 
can be easily improved by making it a compound sentence. 
The force of the improvement is at once felt by changing 
the which in (1) to this; in (2) by changing which to and 
this, or by allowing (2) to remain a simple sentence with a 
compound predicate, and thus darkened the room; in (3) 
by changing which to and this. Yet in the analysis of the 
three examples and of similar sentences, the construction 
should not be expanded, but treated as a. complex sentence 
with a clause the antecedent of a relative pronoun. 

Sometimes but has a negative relative pronoun force; 
as such, it is equivalent to that . . . not. In "There's not a 
breeze but whispers thy praise," but is used as the subject 
of whispers and joins the subordinate clause to breeze. 
The sentence expanded reads, "There is not a breeze that 
does not whisper thy praise." 

Examples of similar construction: 

(1) There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has one vacant chair! 

(2) There is no man of worth, but has a piece of singu- 
larity. 

(3) There is not one here but knows the truth. 
Sometimes the antecedent of a relative is repeated, as 

in "The temple of God is holy, which temple ye are." The 
subordinate clause is joined by which to the word temple 
of the principal clause; which also modifies temple of the 
subordinate clause. Here the word can be called a demon- 



English Grammar and Analysis 19 

strative-adjective relative. Examples of a similar use of 
which are found in the following: 

(1) In the course of his argument many truths he vari- 
ously pointed out, which truths seemed to be self-evident 
to the listeners. 

(2) To him the privilege was given, which privilege he 
abused. 

An old use of which in an adjective clause is to have it 
follow the. Thus, in "Do not they blaspheme that worthy 
name by the which ye are called?" In this example which 
is the relative, the object of by; its antecedent is name; 
which is modified by the article the. Of this use Whitney 
says, "In old English, and rarely even now, the which is 
used instead of simple which." He gives this example: 

'Twas a foolish quest, 
The which to gain and keep, he sacrificed all rest." 

Here " 'Twas a foolish quest," is the principal clause of a 
complex sentence; the which is the object of the compound 
infinitive phrase to gain and keep; these infinitives modify 
sacrificed; quest is the antecedent of which; which is lim- 
ited by the adjective element the. This construction was 
common in the Elizabethan age. 

The Adverbial Clause 

An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the office of an 
adverb. Like an adverb, it may modify a verb, adverb, 
adjective, infinitive, participle. 

Adverbial clauses may denote time, place, manner, 
cause, degree, result, purpose, condition, concession, evi- 
dence. 

The intervening link between the adjective and the ad- 
verbial clause is the adjective clause joined to the word 
it modifies by a conjunctive adverb. This type of sentence 
has been discussed to a considerable extent in the pre- 
ceding pages. 

The best plan in presenting adverbial clauses to a class 



20 A Teachers' Manual 

is to begin with the more simple* and concrete adverbial 
ideas. For instance, a class will more readily understand 
an adverbial idea of place than one of concession; or more 
quickly get a notion of time than of evidence. It is usually 
a difficult matter for beginners to grasp the abstract ideas 
of certain adverbial clauses. Hence it is wise for the 
teacher to muster large numbers of illustrations to clarify 
the meaning of such words as concession, condition, evi- 
dence. These more intangible clauses are too frequently 
passed over hurriedly with the result that the class either 
fails to understand clauses or heartily dislikes the sub- 
ject. When clauses denoting time, place, manner, and de- 
gree, have been made clear, the teacher then may pass to 
the second case of clauses — cause, evidence, concession, 
condition, purpose, result. 

There are two kinds of subordinate connectives joining 
adverbial clauses to the principal — subordinate conjunc- 
tions without adverbial force and subordinate conjunctions 
with it, namely, conjunctive adverbs. It must not be over- 
looked that a conjunctive adverb is always a subordinate 
conjunction; yet in addition to its mere connective func- 
tion, it modifies as an adverb. 

An adverbial clause may modify, 

a verb: 

He came when he was called; 

an adverb: 
Where truth is, there is light; 

an adjective: 

He is older than you; 

a participle: 

He was seen sitting where the tracks cross; 

an infinitive phrase: 

He was made to stand where danger was greatest. 

(In each of the above sentences the word in black type 
is the term modified by the adverbial clause.) 



English Grammar and Analysis 21 

Clauses of Time 



(1) When Caesar speaks, all must listen. 

(2) He came when he was summoned. 

(3) When spring comes, Nature rejoices. 

(4) Whenever he saw an opportunity, lie availed himself 
of it. 

(5) The building was erected since he came. 

(6) As he passed by, he heard his name spoken. 

(7) While he hesitated, the cause was lost. 

(8) He remained at his post until help came. 

(9) The boy was here before the hour elapsed. 

(10)- Word was received after the crowd had disbanded. 

(11) I felt that he was present, ere my eye told it me. 

(12) As long as he remained true, honors came to him. 
In the above sentences when, whenever, since, as, while, 

until, before, after, ere, are the signs of the subordinate 
clauses. In each case the subordinate clause modifies the 
verb in the principal clause; the subordinate conjunction in 
each case is a conjunctive adverb, and in addition to join- 
ing the subordinate clause to the verb in the principal 
clause, modifies the verbs of both principal and subordi- 
nate clauses. 

Clauses of Time 
II 

(1) When he called, then we answered. 

(2) When they drew nigh unto Jerusalem, then sent 
Jesus two disciples. 

(3) When ye shall see the abomination of desolation, 
then let them flee into the mountains. 

(4) When he was gone, then up spake one in defense 
of him. 

In the above sentences when is a conjunctive adverb 
joining the subordinate clause to its correlate then; as an 
individual word, when modifies the verb in the subordinate 
clause; the clause as a whole modifies then. 

These adverbial uses may easily be proved by expanding 



22 A Teachers' Manual 

the sentence to its equivalent. In (1) Group I, "When 
Caesar speaks, all must listen," the connective when may 
be expanded to read at the time at which; the sentence 
would read, by placing the principal clause before the 
subordinate, "All must listen at the time at which Caesar 
speaks." The principal clause is here arranged first for 
purposes of explanation. Grammatically, it makes no dif- 
ference which clause comes first. Thus it is evident that 
"When Caesar speaks, all must listen" is the grammatical 
equivalent of "All must listen at the time at which Caesar 
speaks." In this latter sentence All must listen at the time 
is the principal clause; at which Caesar speaks the sub- 
ordinate. The phrase at the time limits must listen; at 
which limits speaks; the antecedent of which is time; 
which joins the clause to time. Since when in the original 
sentence is the equal of at the time at which, when is 
treated just as the phrases; i. e., it modifies the verbs 
in both clauses and performs the office of a connective. 
Although the original sentence contains an adverbial clause, 
yet its expanded form changed the subordinate clause to 
an adjective clause. This is necessary, as it would be im- 
possible to prove or explain ' the uses of the adverbial 
clause, by expanding it into another adverbial clause. I*" 
must be changed to an adjective clause to show its force; 
therefore an intelligent knowledge of the adverbial clause 
presupposes an acquaintance with the adjective clause. 

For practice, let the following sentence be expanded to 
prove the use of when : 

"He came when I called." 

This construction must be expanded into one containing 
an adjective clause; thus, "He came at the time at which 
I called." 

When equals at the time at which; at the time modifies 
came; at which, modifies called; which, a relative, joins the 
clauses, or it joins the subordinate clause to time; there- 
fore, when modifies came and called because its equivalents 
so modify; and joins the two clauses because one of the 
equivalent words (which) joins the clauses. 

By expanding since in sentence (5) Group I, to after the 



English Grammar and Analysis 23 

time at which, it is readily seen that since modifies the 
verbs of both clauses, and joins the clause to was erected, 
the verb modified by the subordinate clause. In (7) Group I, 
while may be expanded to during the time in which; if so, 
the phrase during the time would modify was lost; in which 
modifies hesitated; the relative joins the subordinate 
clause to time. Thus, while, as a conjunctive adverb, mod- 
ifies was lost and hestitated because its equivalent so mod- 
ifies, and joins the clauses. In (8), Group I, until may be 
expanded to until the time at which; in the phrase until 
is a preposition; in the original sentence it is usually called 
a conjunctive adverb. 

In (9), before is a conjunctive adverb; if it is expanded 
to the phrases before the time at which, its modifying is 
easily seen. In the expanded phrase before becomes a 
preposition; as a conjunctive adverb, it is equivalent to 
itself as a preposition with the other words above given. 

With practice it is not difficult to formulate appropriate 
equivalents for all the conjunctive adverbs. This, of 
course, is only done when one desires to prove the manner 
in which the conjunctive adverbs modify and connect. It 
is evident that in each of the sentences the subordinate 
clause is adverbial and must modify like an adverb. 

Some writers often dispose of such sentences as (8), (9), 
(10), and (11), as complex sentences having noun clauses 
the object of a preposition. This view is also satisfactory. 
For example, in (9), before the hour elapsed may modify 
was; before would have for its object the noun clause the 
hour elapsed. 

In sentence (12) as long as may be used as a single con- 
junctive adverb of time, and so parsed; its meaning is 
while. 

It is well to pass to the proof of the sentences given 
under Group II of time clauses. Again the clauses must 
be expounded to adjective elements before the reason for 
the manner of modifying in the original sentence may be 
seen. In "When he called, then we answered," the sub- 
ordinate clause is placed first. For purposes of clearness 
and explanation, let the order be changed that the sen- 



24 A Teachers' Manual 

tence may stand, "We answered then when he called." 
This equals "We answered at the time at which he 
called." Here it is at once seen that then equals at the 
time; and when equals at which. Then, at the time mod- 
ifies answered: so does its equivalent then; at which mod- 
ifies called; so does its equivalent when; which would join 
the clause to its antecedent time, one of the equivalent 
words of then: so does when join the clause to its correlate 
then. 

In (4), Group II, the order may be changed to "Up spake 
one in defense of him then when he had gone." This may 
be expanded to "Up spake one in defense of him at the time 
at which he had gone"; plainly, then equals at the time 
and accordingly modifies spake; when equals at which and 
modifies had gone; which, in part an equivalent to when, 
connects the clauses. 

Sometimes in a clause of time the conjunctive adverb is 
modified by another adverb. This is illustrated in "It hap- 
pened just as the* train arrived"; just modifies as. 

Adverbial Clauses of Place 

Group I 

(1) Where he leads, I shall follow. 

(2) He did good wherever he could do so. 

(3) Whither thou goest, I will go 

(4) Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

(5) The wind bloweth where it listeth. 

In each of the above sentences the conjunctive adverbs 
where, wherever, and whither are the signs of the sub- 
ordinate clauses; they modify the verbs of both clauses 
and at the same time connect the subordinate clause to 
the principal clause. As was the case in the sentences 
under Group I, of the time clause, the principal clause verb 
is modified by the conjunctive adverb and at the same time 
by the clause it introduces. 

The office of where in sentence (1) is proved by ex- 



English Grammar and Analysis 25 

panding the sentence to (first changing the order) "I shall 
follow in the place in which he leads"; where is equivalent 
to the two prepositional phrases, and is disposed of after 
the same manner. 

Group II 

(1) Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

(2) Where there's a will, there's a way. 

(3) Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 

(4) Where least suspected danger was, there it stealthily 
lurked. 

(&) Where there is no liberty, there shall I be found. 

In the above sentences there is an adverb of place, which 
is modified by the entire subordinate clause. The indi- 
vidual word where does not modify there; where, as a 
word, modifies the verb in the subordinate clause. Dis- 
tinction must always be made between the manner in 
which the clause modifies and that in which some par- 
ticular word modifies. It is true that these adverbial 
clauses in Group II all modify the adverb there, but it is 
not true that each word individually in the clause modifies 
the same word. 

For proof of this let sentence (1) be expanded to "Your 
heart will be also in the place in which your treasure is"; 
in the place equals there and modifies will be; in which 
equals where and modifies is; which joins the subordinate 
clause to place, one of the equivalents of there; therefore 
there modifies will be, where modifies is and joins the 
clause to there. 

In "Where there is no liberty, there shall I be found," 
the modifiers are placed similarly to those in the above, 
and are likewise proved. The second word in the subordi- 
nate clause there is used independently — it is an expletive. 
This use of there is at once apparent because the word 
does not indicate place; there in principal clause — there 
shall I be found — plainly denotes place. 



26 A Teachers' Manual 

Clauses. of Manner 

Group II 

(1) He spoke as he thought. 

(2) Time but th' impression stronger makes, as streams 
their channels deeper wear. 

(3) They prohibited by statute the sending all sorts of 
arms into Wales, as you prohibit by proclamation the send- 
ing of arms to America. 

(4) They disarmed the Welsh by statute, as you at- 
tempted to disarm New England by an instruction. 

(5) They prevented the Welsh from the use of fairs and 
markets, as you do the Americans from fisheries and foreign 
ports. 

Group II 

(1) As a man thinketh, so is he. 

(2) So do, as thou hast said. 

(3) As a flower of the field, so he flourisheth. 

• (4) Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord 
pitieth them that fear him. 

In the sentences of Group I the conjunctive adverb as 
modifies in each sentence the verbs of both members and 
joins the subordinate clause to the verb in the principal 
clause. To prove this, let as be expanded to its equivalent 
in the manner in which; it will be seen that in the manner 
modifies the principal clause verb, and in which the sub- 
ordinate clause verb; which will join the clauses. "He 
spoke as he thought" may be expanded to "He spoke in 
the manner in which he thought"; by so expanding the 
sentence, the force of as may be readily seen. 

In Group II the correlates so ... as equal the two 
phrases, in the manner in which;. so equals in the manner, 
and as, in which. Let the order of "As a man thinketh, so 
is he" be changed to read, "So is he as a man thinketh." 
By substituting the phrase equivalents the sentence will 
read, "He is in the manner in which a man thinketh." The 
phrase in the manner limits is. as does so; in which limits 



English Grammar and Analysis 27 

thinketh, as does as, and joins the clause to manner, a par- 
tial equivalent of so. The proof of this sentence is rather 
awkward inasmuch as the antecedent man of the pronoun 
he comes in the subordinate clause. The reverse order is 
idiomatic; i. e., the antecedent in the principal clause and 
the pronoun in the subordinate. 

In (4) Like as is treated as if it were the one word as," 
it is here parsed as a subordinate conjunctive, conjunctive 
adverb of manner limiting pitieth of the subordinate clause 
and joining the clause to its correlate so. It is equally ac- 
curate to make Like the equivalent of just and to construe 
it as a modifier of as. 

Thus it is seen in the above complex sentences, Group II, 
that the subordinate clause modi&es the adverb of man- 
ner in the principal clause; that the conjunctive adverb 
limits the verb in the subordinate clause and joins the 
clause to the adverb in the principal clause. 

Clauses of Degree 

(1) He was as good as he was great. 

(2) The eyes of men converse as much as their tongues. 
(3') Necessity of restraint is just as honorable to a man 

as the necessity of labor. 

(4) He dreamed so long that the day escaped. 

(5) He was so good as to oblige me. 

(6) The more he sees it, the better he likes it. 

(7) The more he studies, the less he seems to know. 

(8) He is older than I. 

In (1) the subordinate clause limits the adverb as of the 
principal clause: the conjunctive adverb of the subordinate 
clause modifies the attribute great and joins this clause to 
as. The proof of this analysis is similar to the foregoing 
examples under time, place, and manner. Again the sen- 
tence is expanded to "He was good to the degree in which 
he was great." The first as is equivalent to to the degree, 
and the second as to in which; to the degree limits good; 
in which limits great and joins the clause to degree; there- 
fore as ... as would be placed in a similar manner in the 
original sentence. In (2) as of the principal clause limits 
much; as of the subordinate clause limits converse, under- 



28 A Teachers' Manual 

stood, and joins this clause to as of the principal clause. 
In (3) as of the principle clause limits honorable and is 
limited by just and the subordinate clause; as in the 
subordinate clause limits the attribute honorable under- 
stood. In (4) so that are correlated; that becomes 

the conjunctive . adverb of degree, joining the subordinate 
clause to so. In (5) the predicate of the subordinate 
clause must be supplied. The sentence may read, "He was 
so good as to oblige me would indicate" or "would be 
good." Here the second as limits this predicate under- 
stood or the attribute of it, and joins the clause to so; 
to oblige me is an infinitive used as the subject. 

In (6) the subordinate clause is placed first in the sen- 
tence; the . . . the are the correlates. In the principal 
clause better limits likes, and the limits better; in the 
subordinate, more limits sees, and the limits more; this 
the is a conjunctive adverb. The subordinate clause modi- 
fies the adverb the of the principal clause. The sentence 
may be expanded to, "He likes it better to the degree in 
which he sees it more." The phrases to the degree and in 
which are the respective equivalents of the . . . the. In such 
sentences wherein the . . . the are correlated, the subor- 
didate clause is almost invariably placed first. Sentence 
(7) is similarly treated; more and less are adverbs of de- 
gree; they are respectively modified by the . . . the; the 
principal clause is he seems to know the less; here seems 
is completed by the attribute complement to know; know 
is modified by less, less by the, which is modified by the 
subordinate clause. In order to obtain a clear grasp of 
the way in which the correlates modify, let the sentence 
be expanded to read, "He seems to know less in the same 
degree in which he studies more."* Here the adverb the 
equals in the same degree; and the conjunctive adverb, in 
which. 

Second General Division of Adverbial Clauses 
The second general division of adverbial clauses consists 
of clauses of cause, evidence, concession, condition, pur- 
pose, and result. 



English Grammar and Analysis 29 

The Clause of Cause 

The name cause wholly explains the nature of this 
subordinate clause. A clause of this type presents the 
cause or reason for the assertion in the principal clause. 
The subordinate conjunctions used to introduce such 
clauses are because, for, since, inasmuch as, and as. In the 
sentence, He thanked God that he was not like other men, 
the subordinate clause is not one of cause, but nounal. In 
"He hurried because he was late," the subordinate clause 
offers the cause of the assertion in the principal; because 
does not modify either verb; it merely joins the subor- 
dinate clause to the principal. The subordinate clause 
as a clause modifies hurried. What is true of the 
subordinate conjunction because is also true of the other 
connectives of cause. Not one of them can be expanded 
to grammatical equivalents to prove that it individually has 
modifying power. It would be absurd to expand the above 
to read, "He hurried for the reason for which he was late." 
In fact "he" did not hurry for such a reason. The reason 
for the hurrying is plainly stated — his being late. 

The Clause of Evidence 

Closely allied to this clause is that of evidence. In form 
they are similar since the same connective may join both 
types of clauses. In "He was there, for I saw him," the 
subordinate clause, for I saw him, is the evidence, or 
proof, of his being there, .not the cause. In "He was late, 
for he was locked out," the same argument holds — the 
proof, or evidence, of his lateness was his being locked out. 

As in a clause of cause, for, since, as, and because are 
commonly used to introduce a clause of evidence. 

(1) He was evidently guilty, since he was seen in the 

hands of a custodian. 

(2) The work was carefully done, as I saw it from the 

beginning to the end. 

(3) It has rained because the ground is wet. 

In each of the subordinate clauses of the above sen- 



30 A Teachers' Manual 

tences is given the evidence, or proof, of the assertion 
made in the principal clause. 

The Clause Expressing Concession 

A clause of concession presents something as admitted, 
yielded, granted, or conceded. The definition of concession 
states directly the purpose of the clause. In "Though He 
slay me, yet will I trust Him," the speaker means that he 
will trust in God even though he admits that God might 
slay him. Here the clause is plainly an admission. This 
type of clause is sometimes easily understood by substi- 
tuting for the conjunction although, though, or the words 
despite the fact that. Hence, "Though he was careless, he 
succeeded," may be made to read, "Despite the fact that 
he was careless, he succeeded." Here the admission is 
readily recognized in the subordinate clause. The sen- 
tence, therefore, means to say that "he succeeded" though 
it must be admitted that "he was careless." 

Examples: 

(1) Though he fall, he shall not utterly be cast down. 

(2) Ye will not believe though it be told you. 

(3) Though he wist it not, yet is he guilty. 

(4) Though he was rich, yet for us he became poor. 

(5) Though ye have done this, yet will I be avenged. 

(6) He will come no difference what may happen. 

In sentences like (3), (4) and (5), yet is used as an 
adverb of time limiting the verb of the principal clause; 
though and yet have no grammatical correlation. In (6) 
the connective though should be supplied, and the sentence 
expended to "He will come though it make no difference 
what may happen." The clause "what may happen" is in 
apposition with it. In any sentence containing a clause of 
concession, the subordinate clause modifies the verb in 
the principal clause; the connective word is a subordinate 
conjunction without any modifying or adverbial force 
joining the two clauses. Sometimes still is used as an in- 
tensive adverb of time to limit the principal clause verb in 



English Grammar and Analysis 31 

sentences with concessional clauses instead of yet; in both 
cases these words are only adverbs of time. 

It is important to remember that the compound relative 
pronoun often introduces an adverbial clause of concession. 
In such cases the conjunction cannot well be supplied. 

Examples: 

(1) He will go whatever his friends may think. 

(2) He will not part with it whatever be its intrinsic 

value. 

Whatever is here used as an indefinite pronoun; in 
thought the real conjunction is understood. However, it 
is not amiss to call whatever a "subordinate-conjunctive 
pronoun." This view serves to clarify both sentences, inas- 
much as the connective cannot be supplied without chang- 
ing the entire structure. Thus in (1) whatever may be 
taken as the object of may think; the subordinate clause 
limits will go; the conjunction is understood. In (2) what- 
ever may be regarded as the attribute after be. If what- 
ever is construed as a subordinate-conjunctive pronoun, no 
conjunction need be supplied. 

Sometimes the connectives as though occur together in 
sentences like this: "He spoke as though he might be 
heard." This must be expanded to "He spoke as one 
speaks if he might be heard." Here the principal clause 
verb spoke is limited by a clause of manner, as one speaks; 
speaks, in turn, is limited by if he might be heard, a 
clause of condition rather than concession. In such sen- 
tences though generally has a conditional meaning. 

In a concessional clause it is not infrequent that the 
entire clause is limited by the intensive adverb even. "He 
declined even though he was urged"; even limits the en- 
tire clause, and is parsed as an intensive adverb. 

The Clause of Condition 

Adverbial clauses may express condition; that is, a 
provision affecting something else. "He will go if you 
ask him" contains a conditional clause: if you ask him. 



32 A Teachers' Manual 

These latter words are the condition, the provision, or the 
requisite upon which his going depends. 
Examples : 

(1) If thou be the son of God, command that these stones 
he made bread. 

(2) If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend. 

(3) If such there breathe, go, mark him well. 

(4) If the light that is in thee be darkness, how great is 
that darkness! 

(5) Nature, the handmaid of God Almighty, doth nothing 
but with good advice, if we make researches into the true 
reason of things. 

In each of the above, if is a subordinate conjunction 
merely connecting the two clauses; it has no modifying 
power. Each subordinate clause modifies the verb in the 
principal clause. 

Unless often introduces a conditional clause. "He will 
not return unless he is urged" means "He will not return 
if he is not urged"; unless is the equivalent of if . . . not. 

In certain clauses of condition the conjunction is 
omitted; in such instances it is to be supplied. 

Examples : 

(1) Should he come by nightfall, he would find all in 
readiness. 

(2) Were I in his place, I should view this likewise. 

(3) Shouldst thou ask me, I should refuse thee. 

In the analysis of these sentences let if be supplied. 

The Clause of Purpose 

Clauses of purpose are readily recognized. They are 
joined to the principal clause by that, so that, in order 
that. It is perhaps clearer to dispose of so that and in 
order that as a single connective or as a phrase conjunc- 
tion. In "He came in order that he might talk to us," the 
subordinate clause limits came; in order that joins this 
clause to came; these connective words do not modify 
anything. 

This type of sentence may be treated under the noun 



English Grammar and Analysis 33 

clause. Such a view would have came modified by the 
phrase in order; order would be explained by the apposi- 
tional noun clase that he might talk to us; that is an in- 
troductory conjunction. To understand this disposition, in 
order may be changed to for the purpose; then the clause 
following purpose would explain it by telling what the 
purpose was. This method of analysis is not easily clari- 
fied to the average student of grammar, and may be left 
as secondary. Since purpose ideas are adverbial in their 
nature, a clause expressing such can always be called ad 
verbial. 

Clauses of purpose: 

(1) He came that he might see us. 

(2) He worked diligently so that he might win the re- 
ward. 

(3) He toiled incessantly lest he might fall behind. 

(4) They crossed the country in order that they might 
save time. 

In sentence (3) lest is equivalent to that . . . not. That 
is the subordinate conjunction, not modifies might fall. 
Likewise is this sentence disposed of: "Watch and pray, 
lest ye enter into temptation." The subordinate clause 
here limits the compound predicates watch and pray. In 
(2) so that is a subordinate conjunction — a iphrase conjunc- 
tion. 

The Clause of Result 

Closely related to the clause of purpose is that of re- 
sult. The difference in meaning between the two is sug- 
gested by the words purpose and result, which designate 
them. A clause of purpose presents the end, or purpose, 
for which something is said or done; a clause of result 
gives the idea effected, or the result of assertion in the 
principal clause. Sometimes a clause may seemingly be 
classed with either of these divisions and the meaning 
adequately explained. In either case the analysis is the 



34 



A Teachers' Manual 



same; the conjunction has no modifying force, and the 
clause itself limits the verb of the principal clause. 



U) It is the gift of God: not of works, lest any man 
should boast. 

(2) So teach us to number our days, that we may get us 
a heart of wisdom. 

(3) Restore such a one in meekness, considering thyself, 
lest thou also be tempted. 

(4) His effort was such that he managed to escape. 

All che foregoing uses of adverbial clauses may be 
summed up under the following laws: 



Law I 



TIME 



when 

whenever 

since 

as 

until 

till 

ere 

before 

after 

while 



PLACE 



MANNER -{ as 




Conjunctive adverbs of time, 

place, manner. 
These introduce the subordi- 
nate clauses. 



If adverbial clauses of time, place, or manner are intro- 
duced by any of the above conjunctive adverbs, and if no 
corresponding correlate is used in the principal clause, 
the clause modifies the verb of the principal clause; the 



English Grammar and Analysis 



35 



conjunctive adverb itself modifies the verbs of both 
clauses. (By "corresponding correlate" is meant the use of 
adverbial words like then with when, there with where, so 
with as, etc.) 



Adverbs of 
time, 
place, 
manner, 
degree. 



Law II 



Principal 
Clause 



Subordinate 
Clause 



then when 

there where 

so as 

so . . ; that 

as as 

the the 



Conjunctive 
Adverbs. 



In complex sentences containing the above correlates, 
the subordinate clause modifies the corresponding correlate 
in the principal clause; the conjunctive adverb itself 
modifies some word in the subordinate clause: the verb, 
the attribute, or an adverb. 



Law III 

Subordinate-clause words: 
because 



for 

whereas 

though 

although 

if 

that 

so that 

in order that 



Clauses of cause, evidence, conces- 
sion, condition, purpose, result. 



If the above are used to introduce adverbial clauses of 
cause, evidence, concession, condition, purpose, result, the 



36 A Teachers' Manual 

clause modifies the verb in the principal clause; these con- 
nectives are subordinate conjunctives and do not have 
modifying power. 

Law IV 

The use of than as a conjunctive adverb. 

The word than as a conjunctive adverb of degree joins 
its clause to either an adjective or an adverb in the com- 
parative degree of the principal clause; than itself always 
modifies some word in the subordinate clause only — either 
the verb or some attribute adjective in the positive degree. 

In "He is older than I," than is equivalent to in which. 
If the sentence is expanded to "He is old to a greater 
degree in which I am old," it is readily seen that than 
must be treated as the words in which, inasmuch as "old 
to a greater degree" equals "older." Therefore, in which 
limits old in the subordinate clause, and joins this clause 
to the equivalent of older, namely "old to a greater degree." 



CHAPTER 



The Infinitive 



The infinitive, as Professor Sweet suggests, is midway 
between the verb and the noun. Its name suggests the 
nature of the verbal element in it; i. e., it expresses action, 
being, or state of being, in an indefinite manner without 
the usual limitations of person and number. In "He came 
to see you," the infinitive phrase to see has no limitations 
as to person or as to number; these modifications are not 
given to it. The same phrase also expresses its action in 
an indefinite, or general manner since it cannot assert 
that he will or will not see you. Thus it is evident that 
the seeing is hazy; it is not definitely stated. The other 
infinite form of the verb, the participle, is likewise in- 
definite in its method of indicating action. 

Infinite forms of the verb are those which are indefinite 
in their manner of expressing action, being, or state of be- 
ing, and are not limited as to person or number. 

The Origin and Nature of the Infinitive 

The origin and the nature of the infinitive are much in 
dispute. The function and the correct name to give to the 
word to placed before the verbal have produced striking 
diversity of opinion. Any variorum grammar will give an 
interesting resume of the discussions. The nomenclature 
of most recent writers agrees in speaking of to as the sign 
of the infinitive and in naming the two words, for example, 
to see, as an infinitive phrase, see, alone, being the infini- 
tive. No good reasons have been advanced from either 
analogy or the facts of comparative philology for calling the 
to anything other than a preposition. It has been called a 
definite article, an adverb, a prefix, but such designations 
have lacked the support of etymology. 

The infinitive often exists without this sign to. Such 

37 



38 A Teachers' Manual 

cases are generally found after the verbs bid, dare, need, 
see, make, feel, let, hear, watch, and the like. 

In Old English the to, with the infinitive, expressed pur- 
pose, necessity, or the completion or expansion of some sub- 
stantive idea. It is the general form of the verb in the 
dative case of the infinitive with to. The form with the to. 
after a time, began to be used in cases usually taking the 
form without it. Then to distinguish the idea of purpose 
above the usual infinitive the word for was prefixed. (See 
Smith, p. 73.) This use of for prefixed to the infinitive in 
the dative case was very common in the Elizabethan age; 
the best writers used it. For instance, for used before the 
infinitive phrase of purpose is the accustomed form in 
Ralph Roister Doister. Shakespeare sometimes uses it 
under the circumstances described, and sometimes does 
not. The two forms are found side by side in much of the 
pre-Shakespearean drama. 

The infinitive and the particple when filling the office of 
a noun are verbal nouns; when filling the office of adjec- 
tives, they may be called verbal adjectives. The mere 
term verbal may be applied to either one in any con- 
struction. 

The infinitive may be used as (1) a noun, (2) an adjec- 
tive element, (3) an adverbial modifier, (4) an independent 
element. 

The Infinitive as a Noun 

1. Subject of a sentence: 

To err is human; to forgive, divine. 

2. The attribute after a finite verb: 

To see is to believe. 

3. The attribute after a participle: 

To show indecision being to fail, he decided at once 
to ponder longer upon the day's problem. 

This construction is theoretical rather than one estab- 
lished by usage. 



English Grammar and Analysis 39 

4. In apposition with a single word expressed: 

It is well to go. 

In apposition with a term understood: 
Better to stem with heart and hand 
The roaring tide of life, than lie, 
Unmindful, on its flowery strand, 
Of God's occasions drifting by. 

5. In apposition with another infinitive: 

See 15. To halt, to hesitate, may prove fatal. 

6. The object of a verb: 

They told him to go. 

7. The object of a preposition: 

He was about to go. 

8. The object of a participle: 

He improved by trying to improve. 

9. The object of another infinitive: 

His purpose was to attempt to run. 

10. The objective complement with an infinitive as the 
object complement in the sentence: 

He thought to hesitate to be to fail. 
This is a theoretical construction. 

11. The objective complement: 

They saw him go. 

12. Independent by exclamation: 

To go there! the idea! 

13. Independent by pleonasm: 

To be or not to be, — that is the question. 

14. Independent with a participle: 

To hesitate being to fail, he quickened uis pace 

15. In apposition with a noun used independently: 

A great thing, to think the thoughts of other men. 



40 A Teachers' Manual 

The Infinitive as an Adjective 

1. It may modify a noun directly: 

This is the place to see him. 

2. It may modify the principal term in a prepositional 
phrase, and be a part of the object of the preposition: 

There is no need for him to go. 

3. It may modify the principal term in a prepositional 
phrase, and not form a part of the object: 

He came to the best place to see the landscape. 

4. It may be used as an attribute complement: 

He was not to be frightened. 

The Infinitive as an Adverb 

It may modify: — 
1. A verb: 

He came to see me. 
z. A participle: 

Having come to see me, he remained for some 
time. 
6. An adverb: 

He is old enough to go. 

4. An adjective: 

He is sure to go. 

5. An infinitive: 

He desired to come to see me. 

6. As an attribute, or a part of the predicate, to denote 
future completion: 

He is to go tomorrow. 

The following sentences are intended to illustrate com- 
mon uses of the infinitive: — 
Adverbial modifiers of purpose: 

1. He walked the distance to see his friend. 

2. He stopped to ask what was the matter. 

3. The sower went forth to sow. 

4. He went to the university to improve himself. 

5. The figures were moulded to be in some sort useful. 



English Grammar and Analysis 41 

6. Some mighty relation between God and death dimly 
struggled to evolve itself from the dreadful antagonism 
between them. 

7. He strives to learn. 

8. He reads to learn. 

9. She sings to cheer him. 
:.0. He came to aid us. 

11. 1 go to prepare a place for you. 

12. He goes to close the window. 

13. Think not that I came to destroy the law or the 
prophets: I came not to destroy, but to fulfil. 

14. Think not that I came to send peace on the earth. 

15. So call the field to rest; and let's away, 
To part the glories of this happy day. 

16. Procure me music ready when he wakes, 
To make a dulcet and heavenly sound. 

17. Your honor's players, hearing your amendment [im- 

provement], 
Are come to play a pleasant comedy. 

18. A capable commander would have sent a few 
launches to grapple the burning hulks, which of course 
were now deserted, and tow them out of harm's way. 

19. Forty ships alone were left to him to defend the 
banner of the crusade and the honor of Castile. 

In each of the above sentences the infinitive modifies 
the verb. 

Law: Infinitives denoting purpose are adverbial modi- 
fiers. 

Observations on the Above Sentences 

Sentence 2. What was the matter is a noun clause, the 
object of ask; matter is the subject of was and what the 
attribute; what is here an interrogative pronoun in an 
indirect question. 

Sentence 5. Useful is an attribute after to be; in sort 
modifies useful. 



42 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 6. From antagonism modifies evolve; between 
them modifies antagonism. 

Sentence 11. For you modifies prepare. 

Sentence 13. A compound sentence; the first member 
is complex, having a noun clause the object of Think; that 
is an introductory conjunction; the second member is 
joined by some conjunction understood, perhaps for; to 
destroy and to fulfil limit came; but connects the infini- 
tives. 

Sentence 16. Ready is an adjective limiting music; 
when he wakes is an adverbial clause modifying ready; 
when is a conjunctive adverb modifying ready and wakes; 
To make limits Procure; the sentence is complex. 

Sentence 18. To grapple and (to) tow is a compound 
infinitive phrase modifying would have sent; of course 
is a prepositional phrase limiting were deserted; out of 
is used as a single word, a phrase preposition, with way 
as the object. 

The Independent Use of Infinitive. 

1. To make a long story short, he will return at once. 

2. To tell the truth, he was sadly in error. 

3. The amount, to put it in round numbers, was $15,000. 

4. To be accurate, the metal weighed 482 grains. 

5. The stranger, to speak strictly, should not have thrust 
himself in. 

6 To sum up the whole: we should say that the aim of 
the Platonic philosophy was to exalt man into a god. — 
(Macaulay.) 

7. To be or not to be, — that is the question. 

8. Every object has several faces, so to speak. R. & K. 

9. To think that he would do such a thing! 

10. To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub. 

11. To look up and not down; 

To look forward and not back; 
To look out and not in; 
And to lend a hand. — Hale. 

12. To be honest, to be kind — to earn a little, and to 
spend a little less, to make upon the whole a family hap- 






English Grammar and Analysis 43 

pier for his presence, to renounce when that shall be neces- 
sary and not to be embittered, to keep a few friends, but 
these without capitulation — above all, on the same grim 
condition, to keep friends with himself — here is a task for 
all that a man has of fortitude and delicacy. — Stevenson. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. To make is completed by the object comple- 
ment story and by the objective complement short; this 
infinitive phrase has no connection with the rest of the 
sentence. 

Sentence 3 To put is completed by it, the object; in 
numbers limits put. 

Sentence 4. Accurate is an adjective, the attribute 
complement after be; grains is an adverbial noun, the 
object of a preposition understood; the phrase limits 
weighed. 

Sentence 6. To sum is completed by the object whole; 
up is an adverb limiting sum; to exalt is an attribute after 
was. 

Sentence 7. To be or not to be may be used indepen- 
dently; not limits be of the second phrase. It has been 
suggested by some that the infinitive phrases should be 
called appositives explaining that; by others the phrases 
are called the subject of Is and that is used independently. 
It seems more consistent to follow the first opinion offered 
by treating the infinitives as independent. From the stand- 
point of meaning — the only safe guide in grammar — one may 
see easily that the infinitives are not put in the sentence 
to explain that. The words are uttered in a meditative 
way and the remaining part of the sentence, that is the 
question, comes perhaps as an afterthought. To call the 
infinitives the subject of is makes that superfluous and 
gives a turn to the force of the sentence not intended by 
the writer. Shakespeare did not intend the same effect 
as would be given by omitting that. To do this would de- 
tract from the reflective and meditative force. 

Sentence 8. So limits speak. 



44 A Teachers' Manual . 

Sentence 9. To think is completed by the noun clause; 
that is an introductory conjunction.- 

Sentence 10. The infinitives are not in apposition with 
one another; each is independent; perchance limits dream; 
ay is independent; rub is the subject of the sentence; is, 
the predicate; there limits is. 

Sentence 11. In this creed from E. E. Hale, the infini- 
tives are all independently used; they are joined to each 
other by and understood in two instances and expressed 
in the last line. 

Sentence 12. The independent infinitive phrases are 
joined to each other by and, understood; above all, as well 
as on condition, limits keep; task is the subject; is, the 
predicate; .all is modified by the adjective clause that a 
man has of fortitude and delicacy. 

Result and Consequence 

1. Good things of day begin to droop and drowse. 

2. It was hot enough to produce combustion. 

3. To read perfectly well one must be thoroughly trained. 

4. I am thy father's spirit; 

Doom'd to a certain term to walk the night, 
And for the day confined to fast in fires. 

5. But that I am forbid 

To tell the secrets of my prison-house, 
I could a tale unfold whose lightest word 
Would harrow up thy soul. 

6. I have no mind to hunt this day. 

7. Every day that comes, comes to decay. 

8. O then, be bold to say Bassanio's dead. 

9. Have I not reason to look pale and dead? 

10. Spare not to tell him that he hath wronged his 
honor. 

11. I would be loath to foil him. 

12. My father's love is enough to honor him. 

13. To find the real ground for the very different esti- 
mate which serious people will set upon culture, we must 
find some motive for culture in the terms of which may 



English Grammar and Analysis 45 

lie a real ambiguity, and such a motive the word curiosity 
gives us. — Arnold. 

14. To reach this ideal, culture is an indispensable aid. 

15. Their month's provisions had been stretched to serve 
six weeks. 

16. He signalled to them to return and join him. 

17. He was obliged at last to leave them. 

18. So, what with my flippancy and his condescension, I 
managed to hear many things which were novel to me at 
that time. 

20. I called the New World into existence to redress the 
balance of the Old. — Canning. 

21. The true poet ascends to receive knowledge; he de- 
scends to impart it. — Wordsworth. 

22. I came not, friends, to steal away your hearts. — 
Shakespeare. 

23. To beguile the time, 

Look like the time. — Shakespeare. 

24. The time is out of joint: O cursed spite, 

That ever I was born to set it right. — Shakespeare. 

25. I must be cruel, only to be kind. — Shakespeare. 

26. An ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad 
for his country. — Bacon. 

27. Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth raise 
To scorn delights, and live laborious days. — Milton. 

28. What shall I do to be forever known, 

And to make the age to come my own? — Cowley. 

29. Nature made thee to temper man. 

30. Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, 
And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 

— Pope. 

31. Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise. — Pope. 

32. He lives to build, not boast, a generous race; 
No tenth transmitter of a foolish face. — Savage. 

33. See, Winter comes to rule the varied year. — Thomp- 
son. 

34. They that can give up essential liberty to obtain a 
little temporary safety deserve neither liberty nor safety. — 
Franklin. 



46 A Teachers' Manual 

35. I live in the crowd of polity, not so much to enjoy 

company as to shun myself. — Johnson. 

36. A man. will turn over half a library to make one 
book. — Johnson. 

37. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

38. There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
And Freedom shall awhile repair, 

To dwell a weeping hermit there! — Collins. 

39. They please, are pleased; they give to get esteem, 
Till seeming blest, they grow to what they seem. 

— Goldsmith. 

40. Truth from his lips prevailed, with double sway, 
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

— Goldsmith. 

41. kven children followed with endearing wile, 

And plucked his gown, to share the good man's smile. 

— Goldsmith. 

42. The dog, to gain his private ends, 
Went mad, and bit the man. — Goldsmith. 

43. How much a dunce that has been sent to roam 
Excells a dunce that has been kept at home! 

— Cowper. 

44. God moves in a mysterious way 
His wonders to perform. — Cowper. 

45. But strive still to be a man before your mother. 

46. juabor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of 
celestial fire, — conscience. — Washington. 

47. Did age comes on apace to ravage all our clime. — 
Beattie. 

48. Take heed that you do not your alms before men 
to be seen of them. — St. Matthew. 

49. He who listens not to advice studies to hear appre- 
hension. — Johnson. 

50. Bigotry murders religion to frighten fools with her 
ghosts. — Col ton. 

51. God sends experience to paint men's portraits. — 
Beecher. 



English Grammar and Analysis 47 

52. The most familiar and intimate habitudes, connec- 
tions, friendships, require a degree of good^breeding both 
to preserve and cement them. — Chesterfield. 

53. To govern men, you must either excel them in their 
accomplishments, or despise them. — Disraeli. 

54. Governments exist to protect the rights of minori- 
ties. — Phillips. 

55. Knowledge exists to be imparted. — Emerson. 

56. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and 
take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to 
weigh and consider. — Bacon. 

57. Labor not to comfort me, 

58. For, behold, the Lord cometh forth out of his place 
to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity. 

59. Speech was made to open man to man, and not to 
hide him; to promote commerce and not betray it. — Lloyd. 

60. Go forth to meet the shadowy future without fear, 
and with a manly heart. — Longfellow. 

Observations 

In sentences 1, 3, 5, 7, 13, 15, 17, the infinitive is a modi- 
fier of the verb. 

Sentence 2. To produce limits enough, a modifier of hot. 

Sentence 4. To walk limits the participle Doom'd, a 
modifier of spirit; to fast limits the participle confined, a 
modifier of spirit; night is an adverbial noun of time limit- 
ing walk, through some preposition understood; and con- 
nects Doom'd and confined; the sentence is simple. 

Sentence 5. A complex sentence; I is the subject of 
the principle clause; could unfold, the verb; tale, the 
object; the adjective clause, whose lightest word would 
harrow up thy soul, limits tale; word is the subject; could 
harrow, the verb; soul, the object; up, is an adverb limit- 
ing could harrow; whose limits word and joins the clause 
to tale. But is a preposition and together with its object 
limits could unfold; the clause following is used as a noun 
the object of But; that is an introductory conjunction; I 



% 



48 A Teachers' Manual 

is the subject of the clause; am forbid, the predicate; To 
tell limits this verb. 

Sentence 6. To hunt limits mind; day is an adverbial 
noun the object of some preposition understood; the phrase 
limits hunt. 

Sentence 8. To say limits bold; the noun clause Bas- 
sanio (is) dead is the object of say; O and then are inde- 
pendent elements. 

Sentence 9. To look limits reason; pale and dead are a 
compound attribute after look. 

Sentence 10. To tell is the object of Spare; that he hath 
wronged his honour is a noun clause the object of tell; 
that is an introductory conjunction. 

Sentence 11. To foil limits the adjective loath. 

Sentence 12. To honour limits the adjective enough. 

Sentence 13. To find limits must find; terms is limited 
by the adjective clause of which may lie a real ambiguity; 
of which limits terms; the antecedent of which is motive; 
of t^e second member word is the subject; curiosity is in 
apposition with word; the sentence is complex-compound. 

Sentence 14. To reach limits aid. 

Sentence 15. Weeks is an adverbial noun of time, the 
object of some preposition understood; the phrase limits 
serve. 

Sentence 16. To return and join, a compound infinitive 
phrase, is the object of the verb signalled, which here has 
become transitive. 

Sentence 18. To hear is the object of managed; with 
flippancy and condescension, a compound prepositional 
phrase, limits managed; what, here an adverb meaning 
partly, limits managed. So is used independently. 

Sentence 20. New World may be used as one term or it 
may be separated, New being taken as an adjective ele- 
ment; Old may be taken as the object of of and would be 
called a proper adjective pronoun, or it may be used as an 
adjective element limiting World, understood; to redress 
modifies called* 

Sentence 21. To receive limits ascends; to impart, de- 
scends. 



English Grammar and Analysis 49 

Sentence 22. To steal limits come; away is an adverb 
limiting steal; hearts is the object of steal. 

Sentence 23. To beguile limits look; you unders^">od is 
the subject of the sentence, look the incomplete pred ".ate, 
and like the attribute, an adjective; the first word tiiva is 
the object of beguile; the second time is the object of the 
preposition to or unto understood; the phrase modifies 
like. Like is never a preposition; here it plainly mea r 
similar, and certainly performs no relation. 

Sentence 24. A compound sentence; to set limits waj 
born; it is the object complement of set and right the 
objective complement. In the first member out of is used 
as a single preposition whose object is joint; this entire 
prepositional phrase is the attribute complement after is; 
out of may be called a phrase preposition. In the second 
member O is independent,- likewise spite; cursed is a mere 
adjective limiting spite. 

. Sentence 25. To be limits must be; it may limit cruel, 
but the preference goes to the verb; kind is an adjective 
attribute after the infinitive; only limits the infinitive be. 

Sentence 26. To lie limits the past participle sent, which 
limits man; abroad, as well as for country, limits lie. 

Sentence 27. Spirit is the object of doth raise; to scorn 
and to live limit doth raise; delights is the object of 
scorn, and days the adverbial object denoting time. Days 
is the object of some preposition understood; the phrase 
limits live. 

Sentence 28. To be known and to make limit shall do; 
the first infinitive is the present passive; age is the object 
complement of made; own, the objective complement. 
Own may be used as a possessive adjective limiting age 
understood, which would then be the objective complement; 
my also would limit age understood; were age not supplied, 
my would limit own, which would be an adjective pronoun. 
The sentence should be put in the form of a statement 
before being analyzed. 

Sentence 29. Here to temper denotes purpose; it modi- 
fies made. It is not used as an objective complement as 



50 A Teachers' Manual 

the meaning plainly is, "Nature made thee for the purpose 
of tempering man." 

Sentence 30. To shed limits raised; blood is the object 
of shed; pleased is past participle limiting he. 

Sentence 31. To waft limits roll; to light, rise. 

Sentence 32. To build and to boast limit lives; race is 
the object of build and is the object, understood, of boast; 
but, understood, connects the infinitive phrases; not limits 
boast; transmitter is the attribute complement after lives; 
transmitter is modified by tenth, then by no. Transmitter 
might be construed as in apposition with He, but this does 
not so strongly (bring forth the writer's thought. 

Sentence 33. To rule modifies comes. [You] See is the 
first member of this compound second member. See is 
not a pure interjection here, but should be treated as a verb 
in the imperative mode. Varied is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 34. To obtain modifies can give; up is an ad- 
verb also modifying can give; liberty is the object of can 
give; neither . . . nor are correlatives joining the com- 
pound object liberty and safety. 

Sentence 35. A complex sentence, having a clause of 
degree; to enjoy limits live; much limits enjoy; so, much, 
and not limit so. So is also modified by the clause as [I 
lived there] to shun myself; to shun limits live, understood; 
as limits shun and joins the clause to so. 

Sentence 36. To make limits will turn; half a may be 
used togetner as a phrase adjective, or it may be separated, 
a modifying library then half modifying it; in other words, 
each word separately modifying library. 

Sentence 37. To blush and to waste limit is born; un- 
seen is an attribute completing blush; many a may be 
taken together as a single modifier of flower; full modifies 
many a. If many a are separated, full then modifies many. 
Full is not an adjective modifier of flower; it is here an in- 
tensive adverb. 

Sentence 38. To bless limits comes as also does there; 
pilgrim is the attribute after comes; to dwell limits shall 
repair; hermit is the attribute after dwell; there limits 



English Grammar and Analysis 51 

dwell; weeping is a mere adjective, with no participial 
nature. 

Sentence 39. To get limits give; seeming limits they, 
the subject of grow; the clause what they seem may be 
used as the object of to; they, the subject of seem and 
what the attribute. Or the antecedent of what may be sup- 
plied and made the object of to; the little adjective clause 
would then modify it. Till may be called a preposition 
taking all the words following it as its objects. In this 
view this complicated prepositional phrase limits give. Or 
till may be used as a conjunctive adverb modifying grow 
and give and joining the two clauses (see page 23). Blest 
is a participle used as an attribute after seeming. 

Sentence 40. To scoff modifies came; to pray, remained; 
from lips limits prevailed. 

Sentence 41. To share limits followed and plucked; en- 
dearing is a mere adjective; good limits man's. 

Sentence 42. To gain modifies went; made is an at- 
tribute after went. 

Sentence 43. To roam limits has been sent; much a may- 
be taken as a phrase adjective limiting dunce, or it may be 
separated; how limits either the phrase adjective or much. 

Sentence 44. To perform modifies moves; wonders is 
the object of perform. 

Sentence 45. To be, completed by the attribute man, 
limits strive; but is a conjunction joining in thought this 
sentence with one preceding. 

Sentence 46. To keep limits labor; spark is the' object 
complement after keep and alive, the objective complement 
of keep; alive is here an adjective; conscience is in ap- 
position with fire. 

Sentence 47. To ravage limits comes; apace and on 
limit comes. 

Sentence 48. To be seen limits do; the clause that you 
. . . them is adverbial denoting result and limits take; 
that is a subordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 49. To hear limits studies. 

Sentence 50 and 51. The infinitives modify the re- 
spective predicates; with ghosts limits frighten. 



52 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 52. To preserve and cement, a compound in- 
finitive phrase, limits require; them is the object of both 
infinitives; both . . . and are correlative conjunctives con- 
necting preserve and cement. 

Sentence 53. To govern modifies must excel and [must] 
despise; either ... or connects the compound predicate. 

Sentence 54. To protect limits exist. 

Sentence 55. To be imparted limits exists. 

Sentence 56. These infinitives all limit read; the first, 
second, and fourth are compound phrases. 

Sentence 58. To punish modifies cometh; for iniquity 
limits punish; out of, a phrase preposition, takes place as 
its object; the prepositional pbrase modifies cometh; for 
is a conjunction joining this sentence to the thought pre- 
ceding; behold is the first member having you understood 
for a subject. 

Sentence 59. The infinitives all limit was made. 

Sentence 60. To meet limits go; without fear, meet. 

The Infinitive used as Subject 

1. To attack them directly in French waters might lead 
to perilous complications, while delay meant famine. 

2. To keep as far from the carriage road as possible was 
therefore the wisb of every pedestrian. 

3. He has more wit than to be here. — Lady Fairfax. 

4. It is better to wear out than to rust out. — Bishop Cum- 
berland. 

5. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct. — 
Disraeli. 

6. To be like Christ is to be a Christian. — Penn. 

7. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual 
means of preserving peace. — Washington. 

8. To live by one man's will became the cause of all 
men's misery. 

9. To be a well-favoured man is the gift of fortune; but 
to write and read comes by nature. — Shakespeare. 

10. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to 
do. chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages 
princes' palaces. — Shakespeare. 



English Grammar and Analysis 53 

11. To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 
To throw a perfume on the violet, 
To smooth the ice, or add another hue 
Unto the rainbow, or with taper-light 

To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, 
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. — Shakespeare. 

12. If all the year were playing holidays, 
To sport would be as tedious as to work. 

— Shakespeare. 

13. To be honest as this world goes, is to be one man 
picked out of ten thousand. — Shakespeare. 

14. To write a verse or two is all the praise 
Ihat 1 can raise. — Herbert. 

j.o. To be weak is miserable, 
Doing or suffering. — Milton. 

16. To know 

That which before us lies in daily life 
Is the ip rime wisdom. — Milton. 

17. To err is human, to forgive divine. — Pope. 

18. To labour is the lot of man below. — Pope. 

19. To be of no church is dangerous. — Johnson. 

20. To take Macaulay out of literature and society and 
put him in the House of Commons, is like taking the chief 
physician out of London during a pestilence. — Sidney Smith. 

21. To know, to esteem, to love, and then to part, 
Makes up life's tale to many a feeling heart. 

— Coleridge. 

22. To bear is to conquer our fate. — Campbell. 

23. To live in hearts we leave behind 
Is not to die. — Campbell. 

24. To be great is to be misunderstood. — Emerson. 

25. To be seventy years young is sometimes far more 
cheerful and hopeful than to be forty years old. — Holmes. 

26. To doubt would be disloyalty, 
To falter would be sin. — Faber. 

27. Then to side with truth is noble when we share her 

wretched crust, 
Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 'tis prosper- 
ous to be just. — Lowell. 



54 A Teachers' Manual 

28. To have more ambition than ability is to be at once 
weak and unhappy. — G. S. Hillard. 

29. To pity distress is but human; to relieve it is God- 
like. — H. Mann. 

30. To have to die is a distinction of which no man is 
proud. — Alexander Smith. 

31. To fail at all is to fail utterly. — Lowell. 

32. To be a really good historian is perhaps the rarest of 
intellectual distinctions. — Macaulay. 

33. To educate the intelligence is to enlarge the horizon 
of its desires and wants. — Lowell. 

3<±. To labor rightly and earnestly is to walk in the golden 
track that leads to God. — Holland. 

35. To sit for one's portrait is like being present at one's 
own creation. — Smith. 

36 To be out of place is not necessarily to be out of 
power. — Johnson. 

37. To be prejudiced is always to be weak. — Johnson. 

38. To yield reverence to another, to hold ourselves and 
our lives at his disposal, is not slavery; often it is the 
noblest state in which a man can live in this world. — 
Ruskin. 

39. To be thought rich is as good as to be rich. — Thack- 
eray. 

40. To do right is to do that which is ordered to be done. 

41. Early to bed and early to rise, 

Makes a man healthly, wealthy, and wise. — Franklin. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. Attack is completed by them and modified 
by in waters and directly; while is equivalent to whereas 
and joins the concessional subordinate clause to might lead. 

Sentence 2. Keep is limited by far; far by as; as by the 
clause as [it was] possible [to keep]. The second as is a 
conjunctive adverb, modifying possible, and joins the clause 
to the first as, (see page 27). 

Sentence 3. A complex sentence; the subordinate clause 
may be supplied to read than to be here [would require]. 
To be is the subject of the subordinate clause; here limits 



English Grammar and Analysis 55 

to be; than modifies would require and joins the clause to 
the adjective more. 

Sentence 4. To rust is the subject of is understood; 
good is the attribute, understood, of the subordinate clause; 
than joins the subordinate clause to better and modifies 
good; out is an adverb limiting wear; rust is modified by 
out; to wear is in apposition with it. 

Sentence 5. The first to be is in apposition with it; 
critical is the attribute after be; to be is the subject of is, 
understood,- in the subordinate clause; easy, understood, is 
the attribute after is; correct is the attribute after be; 
than is a conjunctive adverb joining the subordinate clause 
to the attribute easier and modifying easy, understood. 

Sentence 6. The infinitive be is completed by like, an 
adjective; [unto] Christ limits like; unto, understood, is a 
preposition and Christ is the object; the second to be, 
completed by the attribute Christian, is the attribute com- 
plement of the sentence. 

Sentence 7. Prepared is here an adjective attribute after 
be; it means ready; the participal phrase preserving peact 
is the object of of; preserving is a noun participle, and 
peace is its object. 

Sentence 8. One modifies man's. 

Sentence 9. Well-favoured is an adjective; to write and 
read is a compound infinitive used as the subject of comes. 
Sentence 10. The clause beginning with if is concessive, 
and modifies had been, expressed, and had been, understood. 
To do is the subject of were; the attribute easy is limited 
by the first as; the second as, a conjunctive adverb, limits 
easy, understood, the attribute after is, understood; to 
know, the subject of is, understood, is completed by the 
noun clause what were good to do; of this clause what is 
the subject; good, the attribute, is modified by to do. What 
may be called a relative joining this clause to some ante- 
cedent understood, like thing. The sentence is compound, 
with a subordinate clause modifying each member. Churches 
is the attribute after had been, expressed, and palaces after 
the same verb understood. Poor limits men's. In order to 
show the full grammatical significance of the sentence, let 



56 A Teachers' Manual 

the construction read, "If to do were as easy as to know 
what were good to do is easy, chapels had been churches, 
and poor men's cottages had been princes' palaces." 

Sentence 11. All the infinitive phrases constitute the 
compound subject of is; the reason that the singular form 
is is used instead of are is because the infinitives are em- 
phasized by being taken in tnought separately. Unto rain- 
bow limits add; to garnish is the object of seek; eye is 
the object of garnish. 

Sentence 12. To sport is the subject of the principal 
clause; tedious, the attribute; the first as modifies tedious: 
the second as, a conjunctive adverb, modifies tedious, un- 
derstood; the attribute after is understood. The subordi- 
nate clause modifies would be and expresses condition. If 
is a subordinate conjunction joining the clause to would be. 
Playing is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 13. Honest as an attribute after be; this phrase 
is used as the subject. As is a conjunctive adverb joining 
the clause this world goes to be; as modifies both be and 
goes. Picked is a participle limiting man; out of is a 
phrase preposition, taking thousand is its object; the 
phrase limits picked; thousand is an adjective pronoun. 

Sentence 14. Write is completed by verse and verses un- 
derstood; the relative that is the object of can raise, and 
joins the clause to its antecedent praise, which the clause 
modifies. 

Sentence 15. Weak is the attribute after to be; doing or 
suffering are present participles used independently. The 
sentence may be expanded to, "For one to be weak is 
miserable, doing or suffering." If the expansion is made, 
the phrase For one to be weak is the subject; one limited 
by to be weak is the object of for. The word one is not 
alone the object of for, but one with its modifiers. In the 
expanded form the participles limit one. One view of the 
sentence is as satisfactory as the other. 

Sentence 16. To know completed by the object that is 
the subject; that is limited by the subordinate adjective 
clause, which . . . life. Before us limits lies. 

Sentence 17. To forgive is the subject of is, understood. 



English Grammar and Analysis 57 

Sentence 18. Below is an adjective limiting man. 

Sentence 20. To take and put are the compound in- 
finitive phrases used as the basis of the subject; take is 
completed by the object Macaulay and limited by the 
prepositional phrase out of literature and society; out of 
is a phrase preposition used as a single word; put is com- 
pleted by the object him and limited by in House. Like is 
the attribute after is; taking is a noun participle the ob- 
ject of unto, understood; the phrase limits like; taking is 
completed by the object physician; out of London limits 
taking; out of is used as a single preposition; during 
pestilence limits taking. 

Sentence 21. These infinitives are used as the compound 
subject; then limits part; up is an adverb limiting makes; 
tale is the object of makes; to heart limits makes; many, a, 
and feeling modify heart. (For a discussion of many a 
see page 50). 

Sentence 22. The words our fate are understood after 
bear. 

Sentence 23. To live is the subject of is; the subor- 
dinate clause [which] we leave behind, limits hearts; the 
relative which "is the object of leave, and joins the clause 
to hearts; behind modifies leave. 

Sentence 24. To be misunderstood is a passive infinitive 
used as the attribute. 

Sentence 25. The subordinate clause than to be forty 
years old [is cheerful and hopeful] modifies more; than 
modifies cheerful and hopeful, understood, in the subordinate 
clause. The first to be is completed by the attribute young; 
this is modified indirectly by the adverbial noun years, the 
object of a preposition understood; the expression may 
mean young [to] seventy years; sometimes limits is; far 
modifies more, and more, cheerful and hopeful; old is an 
attribute after the second to be; the adverbial noun years 
through a preposition understood limits old. 

Sentence 27. To side is the subject of is; then limits is; 
the clause, when we . . . crust, limits then; when is a con- 
junctive adverb limiting would be and joining the clause to 
then; ere is another conjunctive adverb joining the com- 



58 A Teachers' Manual 

pound clase to is of the principal clause; ere modifies as a 
word the verb is, and bring and is of the subordinate 
clauses. The phrase to be just is in apposition with it; just 
is an attribute. 

Sentence 28. Ambition, the object of have, is modified by 
more; mere is modified by the phrase than [to have] 
ability; than limits have, understood; the phrase at once 
limits be. Tne sentence may be expanded to "For one to 
have more ambition than he has ability," etc. Then than 
would modify has and join the clause to more. 

Sentence 29. Tbe conjunctive but is understood between 
the members. The but expressed is an intensive adverb 
limiting human. Godlike is an adjective used as the at- 
tribute. 

Sentence 30. To die is the object of have; of which 
limits proud; which joins the clause to distinction. 

Sentence 32. A limits historian as does good; really 
limits good. 

Sentence 35. Like is the attribute after is; being, a noun 
participle, is the object of unto, understood; the phrase 
limits like; present is an attribute after being; own and 
one's limit creation. 

Sentence 36. The phrase out of place is all the attribute 
after be; out of is a phrase preposition as one word; place 
is its object. Out of power is a phrase similarly used as 
the attribute complement after be. 

Sentence 37. Prejudiced is a mere adjective; weak is an 
adjective; always limits is. 

Sentence 38. These infinitives are not in apposition, but 
are used as the compound subject; to another limits yield; 
at disposal, hold. State is modified by the and by noblest. 
The verb is singular because the subjects are taken sepa- 
rately for emphasis. 

Sentence 39. To be thought is the passive infinitive; 
rich is an attribute after it; good is limited by as; the 
second as joins the clause, to be rich [is good], to the first 
as, and modifies good, understood. 

Sentence 40. Right is the object of do; that, the ante- 
cedent of which, is the object of the second do, and is 



English Grammar and Analysis 59 

modified by the adjective clause; which is the subject of is 
ordered; to be done is an infinitive, the attribute after is 
ordered. 

iSentence 41. Go, understood, is limited by early and to 
bed; rise, by early; healthy, wealthy, wise, are three ad- 
jectives constituting the compound objective complement. 

The Infinitive used as Attribute 

1. It hath been said that an unjust peace is to be pre- 
ferred before a just war. — Butler. 

2. The lake is said to be deep. 

3. He seemed to be cold. 

4. They are to go soon. 

5. My desire is to make what haste I may to be gone. — 
Cromwell. 

6. Oppression is but another name for irresponsible 
power, if history is to be trusted. — Pinkney. 

7. The Exe cannot be made to flow back to its source. 

8. The great business of life is, to be, to do, to do without, 
and to depart. 

9. The best is always to be chosen. 

10. For anything so overdone is from the purpose of 
playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, 
to hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to nature. — Shakespeare. 

11. Repent what's past — avoid what is to come. 

12. To be once in doubt is once to be resolved. — Shake- 
speare. 

13. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, 
and some few to be chewed and digested. — Bacon. 

14. It [poetry] was ever thought to have some participa- 
tion of divineness. — Bacon. 

15. Cleanness of body was ever deemed to proceed from 
a due reverence to G-od. — Bacon. 

16. Cato said the best way to keep good acts in memory 
was to refresh them with new. — Bacon. 

17. Doubt not but angling will prove to be so pleasant 
that it will prove to be, like virtue, a reward to itself. — 
Walton. 

18. Life is not to be bought with heaps of gold. — Pope. 



60 A Teachers' Manual 

19. Our business in the field of fight 

Is not to question, but to prove our might — Pope. 

20. Everything appears to promise that it will last. — 
Franklin. 

21. The use of traveling is to regulate imagination by 
reality, and instead of thinking how things may be, to see 
them as they are. — Johnson. 

22. I have never sought the world; the world was not to 
seek me. — Johnson. 

23. The true sense of speech is not so much to express 
our wants as to conceal them. — Goldsmith. 

24. I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute. — Cowper. 

25. The manly part is to do with might and main what 
you can do. — Emerson. 

26. The leaves of memory seemed to make 

A mournful rustling in the dark. — Longfellow. 

27. The way to resumption is to resume. — S. P. Chase. 

28. All we ask is to be let alone. — J. Davis. 

29. A lie never lives to be old. — Sophocles. 

30. Every day should be passed as if it were to be our 
last. — Publius Syrus. 

31. Are we to mark this day with a white or a black 
stone ? — Cervantes. 

32. A good name is rather to be chosen than great 
riches. — Proveros. 

33. The best part of every author is to be found in his 
book, I assure you. — Johnson. 

34. There seems to be a strange affection in authors of 
appearing to have done everything by chance. — Johnson. 

35. The virtue of books is to be readable. — Emerson. 

36. If cities were built by the sound of music, then some 
edifices would appear to be constructed by grave, solemn 
tones; others to have danced forth to light, fantastic airs. — 
Hawthorne. 

37. The great quality of Dullness is to be unalterably con- 
tented with itself. — Thackery. 

38. Honest error is to be pitied, not ridiculed. — Chester- 
field. 



English Grammar and Analysis 61 

39. Friends are to incite one another to God's works. — 
Channing. 

40. They who dare to ask anything of a friend, by their 
very request seem to imply that they would do anything for 
the sake of that friend. — Cicero. 

41. A man cannot be said to succeed in this life who does 
not satisfy one friend. — Thoreau. 

42. Friendship is to be purchased only by friendship. — 
Wilson. 

43. Nothing is more simple than greatness; indeed, to be 
simple is to be great. — Emerson. - 

44 The first step to greatness is to be honest. — Johnson. 

45. The great man is to be the servant of mankind, not 
they of him. — 'Parker. 

46. Happiness is only to be found in a recurrence to the 
principles of human nature, and these will prompt very 
simple measures. — Disraeli. 

47. Happiness grows at our own fireside, and is not to 
be picked in strangers' gardens. — Jerrold. 

48. We are to recognize all men as brethren, no matter 
where born, or under what sky, or institution, or religion 
they may live. — Channing. 

49. Good humor may be said to be one of the very best 
articles of dress one can wear in society. — Thackery. 

50. Every nation belongs to the family of nations, and is 
to desire the good of all. — Channing. 

51. After the sleep of death we are to gather up our forces 
again with the incalculable results of this life. — Haweis. 

52. Influence is to be measured not by the extent of sur- 
face it covers, but by its kind. — Channing. 

53. The way to procure insults is to submit to them. — 
Hazlitt. 

54. The best use of good laws is to teach men to trample 
bad ones under their feet. — Phillips. 

55. The problem of life is to make the ideal real, and 
convert the divine at the summit of the mountain into the 
human at its base. — Parkhurst. 

56. The mystery of mysteries is to view machines mak- 
ing machines. — Disraeli. 



62 A Teachers' Manual 

57. The natural effect of sorrow over the dead is to 
refine and elevate the mind. — Irving. 

58. Life was intended to be so adjusted that the body- 
should be the servant of the soul, and always subordinate 
to the soul. — Holland. 

59. A translator is to be like his author; it is not his 
business to excel him. — Johnson. 

60. The thing is not only to avoid error, but to attain im- 
mense masses of truth. — Carlyle. 

61. Is truth a fantasy which we are to pursue forever and 
never grasp ? — Hawthorne. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. The noun clause, that an unjust peace . . . 
war, is in apposition with it; that is an introductory con- 
junction; to be preferred is the attribute- complement. 

Sentence 2. Is said is the incomplete predicate, and to be 
deep is the logical attribute complement; deep is an ad- 
jective, the attribute after be. By some is said to be is 
called a strengthened copula and deep is taken as the at- 
tribute. This view seems less preferable than the first, 
wherein the whole phrase is the attribute. In the sentence, 
"He seems to be sick," to be sick is the attribute after 
seems; sick is an adjective, the attribute after be. The 
sentence means "He seems sick"; to be sick equals in mean- 
ing sick; hence to be is a part of the attribute rather than 
of the verb. 

Sentence 3. To be cold is a phrase used as the logical at- 
tribute complement; cold is also an attribute after be. 

Sentence 4. To go is an attribute complement after are; 
soon limits go. 

An important law observed in the use of the infinitive 
is that infinitives denoting future completion are construed 
as attribute complements. This construction usually occurs 
after the various forms of the verb be. 

Sentence 5. To make is an attribute complement after 
is, and is completed by the object taste; haste is modified by 
the adjective clause what I may [make] to be gone. By 
transferring what so that it follows haste one may see its 



English Grammar and Analysis 63 

force as a relative; what is used as the object of may make, 
make being understood; to be gone is an infinitive of pur- 
pose limiting may make. 

Sentence 6. The subordinate clause, if trusted, conditions 
and limits is. To be trusted is an attribute after is. But 
is an adjective limiting name; its force is seen in case the 
sentence is made to read, "Oppression is another name, 
only, for irresponsible power," etc. But is equivalent to 
only. 

Sentence 7. To flow is an attribute complement after 
can be made; back limits flow; to source also limits flow. 

Sentence 8. The compound infinitive phrases are the at- 
tributes after is; without is an adverb limiting do. 

Sentence 9. To be chosen denotes future completion and 
is therefore the attribute complement after is; always 
limits is. 

Sentence 10. To hold is the attribute after was and is; 
hold is completed by mirror, and is modified by up and to 
nature. For is a conjunction joining this sentence to the 
thought preceding it. Of the principal clause anything is 
the subject, is the predicate; overdone is a past participle 
limiting anything; so limits overdone; from purpose limits 
is; of playing limits purpose; playing is a mere noun. 
Playing is modified by the subordinate clause, of which end 
is uie subject; was and is, the compound incomplete predi- 
cate; at first and now limit was and is; both . . . and are 
correlative co-ordinates joining the prepositional phrase at 
first and now; whose is a relative pronoun in the posses- 
sive case limiting end -and joining the clause to playing. 
As 'twere is an independent clause sustaining no grammati- 
cal connection with the remainder of the sentence; it is 
the subject, and were the predicate; as is an introductory 
conjunction. 

Sentence 11. The clause what is past is the object of 
repent; avoid takes what is to come as its object; to come 
is the attribute after is. In both these subordinate clauses 
what may be taken as a relative, whose antecedent is 
understood; then the clause is adjectival rather than nounal. 

Sentence 12. The first once limits be, the second once, is; 



64 A Teachers' Manual 

to be is the attribute after is; resolved is an adjective, the 
attribute after be. 

Sentence 13. To be tasted is an attribute complement 
after are; to be swallowed, after are, understood; to be 
chewed and [to be] digested, after are, the understood verb 
used with few. 

Sentence 14. It is the subject; the word poetry is added 
merely to explain and has nothing to do with the gram- 
matical construction of the sentence; if it is construed, it is 
taken as an appositive of It; to have is the attribute after 
was thought; participation is the object of have. 

Sentence 15. To proceed is the attribute after was 
deemed; to God limits reverence. 

Sentence 16. Said takes for its object the noun clause 
the best . . . with new; to refresh is the attribute after 
was; with new modifies refresh; new is an adjective pro- 
noun; to keep limits way; in memory limits keep. 

Sentence 17. The first to be is an attribute after will 
prove; pleasant is an attribute after be; pleasant is limited 
by so, which is modified. by the adverbial clause of degree 
that it will prove, etc. What is a conjunctive adverb limit- 
ing the second will prove and joining the clause to so; like 
is an adjective limiting it; [unto] virture limits like, unto 
being the supplied proposition; the second to be is an at- 
tribute after the second will prove; reward is the attribute, 
after be. You, understood, is the subject of the doubt; but 
is a preposition taking for its object the complex noun 
clause angling will prove ... to itself. 

Sentence 18. Not limits is; to be bought is the attribute 
after is. 

Sentence 19. To question and to prove are the com- 
pound attributes after is; but connects the two phrases; 
might is the object of prove. 

Sentence 20. To promise is the attribute after appears; 
the noun clause is the object of promise; that is an intro- 
ductory conjunction introducing the noun clause. 

Sentence 21. To regulate and to see are the compound 
attribute complement after is; by reality limits regulate; 
imagination is the object of regulate; instead of, a phrase 



English Grammar and Analysis 65 

preposition, takes the noun participle thinking as its object; 
this phrase instead of thinking modifies see; the noun 
clause how things may be is the object of thinking; how 
limits may be; them is the object of see; see is modified by 
the adverbial clause of manner, as they are; as limits both 
see and are. Traveling is a mere noun. 

'Sentence 22. To seek is the attribute after was; not 
limits was; me is the object of seek. 

Sentence 23. If the sentence is expanded to read, "The 
true sense of speech is not so much to express our wants as 
it is to conceal them," the construction to the subordinate 
clause is plain. To express is an attribute after is; much 
limits express; wants is the object of express; so limits 
much; not, is; so is limited by the adverbial clause of de- 
gree. Of this it is the subject; to conceal is in apposition 
with it; them is the object of conceal; as limits conceal, 
and joins the clause to so. 

Sentence 24. Of the second member of this compound 
sentence none is the subject; to dispute is the attribute after 
is; right is the object of dispute; there is an expletive, used 
independently. 

.Sentence 25. To do is the attribute after is; with might 
and main limits do; the antecedent understood of what is 
the o'bject of do. Of the subordinate clause, you is the sub- 
ject; can do, the incomplete predicate, and what, the object 
complement. The relative what joins the adjective clause 
to the antecedent understood. 

Sentence 26. To make is the attribute after seemed; the 
noun rustling is the object of make; in dark limits make. 

Sentence 28. To be let is the attribute after is; alone is 
also an attribute after to be let. All is the subject of the 
principal clause; is, the incomplete predicate. The subor- 
dinate clause is [that] we ask; we is the subject; that, un- 
derstood is the object of ask, and joins the clause to its an- 
tecedent all. 

Sentence 29. To be is the attribute after lives; old is 
also an attribute after be. 

Sentence 30. This sentence should be expanded to, 
"Every day should be passed as it would be passed if it 



66 A Teachers' Manual 

were to be our last." Should be passed is modified by the 
the clause of manner understood, as it would be passed; as 
limits both predicates. The clause, if it were to be our 
last, limits would be passed, understood; if is a mere con- 
junction joining the clause to this predicate; to be is the 
attribute after were; last, as an adjective pronoun, is the 
attribute after be. 

Sentence 31. To make is an attribute denoting future 
completion after are; day is the object of make. Supply 
the word stone to be limited by a and white; the preposi- 
tional phrase limits mark. 

Sentence 32. To be chosen is the attribute complement 
denoting necessity; rather limits be chosen; are to be 
chosen is to be supplied in the subordinate clause; to be 
chosen is the attribute after are; than limits be chosen, un- 
derstood, and joins the clause to rather. 

Sentence 33. I is the subject of the sentence; assure the 
incomplete predicate; you is the direct object of assure; the 
clause, the best ... his book, is also the object of assure; 
to be found is the attribute after is. 

(Sentence 34. There is independent as an expletive; af- 
fectation is the subject; seems, the incomplete predicate; 
to be, the attribute; in authors limits be; of appearing 
modifies authors; appearing is a noun participle taking to 
have done as an attribute; everything is the object of have 
done; by chance limits have done. 

Sentence 35. To be is the attribute after is; readable Is 
the attribute after be. 

Sentence 36. A complex-compound sentence, the two 
members being "then some edifices would appear to be 
constructed by grave, solemn tones; others [would appear] 
to have danced forth to light, fantastic airs." The subordi- 
nate clause, if cities ... of music, limits the verbs of both 
members; if is a subordinate conjunction. To be con- 
structed is the attribute after would appear; then limits 
would appear; to have danced is the attribute after would 
appear, understood. Forth and to airs limit have danced. 

Sentence 37. To be is the attribute after is; conter 5d 



English Grammar and Analysis 67 

is a mere adjective used as the attribute after be; unalter- 
ably limits contented. 

Sentence 38. To be pitied and [to be] ridiculed are the 
compound attribute complement; and, understood, connects 
the infinitives; not limits be ridiculed. 

Sentence 39. To incite is the attribute after are; the in- 
finitive denotes necessity; one another may be used as one 
word the object of incite, or one may be taken as in apposi- 
tion with friends, and another used as the object of incite. 
One cannot be made the modifier of another inasmuch as 
one sustains no modifying relation to another. The words 
denote different things. 

Sentence 40. To imply is the attribute after seem. They 
is the subject of the principal clause; seem, the incomplete 
predicate; who dare ... a friend limits they; to ask is the 
object of dare; anything is the object of ask; of friend 
limits ask. By request modifies seem; very is an adjective 
modifier of request. The clause that they . . . that friend 
is the object of imply; that is an introductory conjunction; 
for sake limits would do. 

Sentence 41. To succeed is the attribute after can be 
said; not limits the verb; the adjective clause limits man. 

Sentence 42. To be purchased is the attribute after is; by 
friendship limits be purchased; only limits the phrase by 
friendship. 

Sentence 43. The word is must be supplied after great- 
ness to complete the first member. More limits the at- 
tribute simple; the clause than greatness is limits more; 
than is a conjunctive adverb limiting is, understood, and 
joining the clause to more. In the second member indeed 
is independent; the phrase to be simple is the subject; 
simple is an adjective attribute after be; to be great is a 
phrase, the attribute complement; great is an adjective at- 
tribute after be. 

Sentence 44. To be is the attribute after is; honest is the 
attribute after be. 

Sentence 45. A compound sentence; the second member, 
when expanded, reads, "they are not to be the servants of 



68 A Teachers' Manual 

him." To be is the attribute after is; servant is the at- 
tribute after be. In the second member to be understood is 
the attribute after are, understood; not limits are; servants, 
understood, is the attribute after be. 

Sentence 46. To be found is the attribute after is, and is 
modified by only. 

Sentence 47. To be picked is the attribute after is, and 
is modified by in gardens. 

Sentence 48. To recognize is the attribute after are. 
[Though it is] "no matter where [they are] born or under 
what sky [they are born] or [under what] institution or re- 
ligion they may live," is the remainder of the sentence with 
the necessary grammatical parts supplied. This subordinate 
clause is concessive; it is the subject of is; matter is the 
attribute; the three co-ordinate clauses are in apposition 
with it. These clauses are, "where they are born or under 
what institution they may live"; or is a co-ordinate con- 
junction. Recognize is completed by the object men and 
the objective complement brethren; as is an introductory 
conjunction, introducing brethren. 

Sentence 49. To be is the attribute after may be said; 
very limits best; the, articles; [that] one can wear in 
society limits articles; that is the object of can wear, and 
joins the clause to its antecedent articles. 

Sentence 50. To desire is the attribute after is; the in- 
finitive denotes -necessity; good, an adjective pronoun, is the 
object of desire. 

Sentence 51. To gather is the attribute after are; it de- 
notes future completion; up and again limit gather; forces 
is the object of gather; with, results limits gather. 

Sentence 52. To be measured denotes necessity, and is 
the attribute after is; not limits is; the two phrases by 
extent and by kind limit the infinitive, and are joined by 
but. 

Sentence 53. To procure limits way, and takes insults as 
its object; to submit is an attribute complement. 

Sentence 54. To teach is the attribute after is; men and 



English Grammar and Analysis 69 

to trample are the direct objects of teach; under feet limits 
trample. Teach takes a double direct object: one of per- 
son, the other denoting the subject taught. In some gram- 
mars men is treated as the indirect object of teach, and to 
trample, the direct; other writers speak of men to trample 
as the direct object of teach, men being an objective subject 
of the infinitive. In Greek, Latin, and Old English, teach 
takes a direct object denoting person, together with a direct 
object denoting a subject taught. 

Sentence 55. To make and [to] convert are the compound 
attribute complement; the last to need not be supplied. 
Ideal is the object complement after made, and real, the 
objective complement. At summit and into human and at 
base all limit convert, which takes the adjective pronoun 
divine as its object. 

Sentence 56. To view is the attribute complement; view 
is completed by the object machines and the objective 
making; making is an adjective participle, taking macines 
for its object. 

Sentence 57. To refine and [to] elevate is the compound 
object; to need not be supplied; mind is the object of the 
infinitives; dead is an adjective pronoun. 

Sentence 58. To be adjusted is the attribute after was 
intended; so limits be adjusted; the subordinate clause, de- 
noting degree, limits so; subordinate is an attribute after 
should be understood; always limits this verb; to soul 
limits subordinate; that limits the verbs of the subordinate 
clause and joins this clause to so. 

Sentence 59. To be is the attribute after is; like is also 
an attribute after be; [unto] author limits like; the prepo- 
sition must be supplied. 

Sentence 60. To avoid and to attain are the compound 
attribute complement; the correlatives not only . . . but join 
these infinitives and had better be construed together rather 
than as single words. Error is the object of avoid, and 
many of attain. 

Sentence 61. To pursue and grasp are the compound at- 
tribute after are. 



70 A Teachers' Manual 

The Infinitive in Apposition with the Subject 

The infinitive in apposition with the subject is illus- 
trated in the sentences given below. Perhaps it may be 
stated here that when the infinitive is in apposition with 
the impersonal it some writers take it to be the real subject 
and the impersonal it, an independent element. This seems 
an unnecessary view. 

1. It is hard to cure anything of smoking. 

2. Being an oracle, it is my wish to behave myself like 
an oracie and not to evade any decent man's questions in 
the way that Apollo too often did at Delphi. — DeQuincey. 

3. It would better fit your honour to change your mind. 

4. Nor was it yet the practice of all citizens in easy cir- 
cumstances to breathe the fresh air of the fields and woods 
during some weeks of every summer. 

5. It was not easy to say whether the place which he had 
left vacant belonged to his steward or to his heir apparent. 

6. It was necessary to use marks which the most ignorant 
could understand. 

7. It was a favourite amusement of dissolute young gen- 
tlement to swagger by night about town, breaking windows, 
upsetting sedans, beating quiet men, and offering rude 
caresses to pretty women. 

8. How sweet it is to rest. 

9. It is better to wear out than to rust out. — Bishop Cum 
berland. 

10. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct. — 
Disraeli. 

11. It is not best to swap horses when crossing a stream. — 
Lincoln. 

12. It is still our duty to fight for our country into what 
hands soever the government might fall. — Blake. 

13. It is the duty of a minister to stand like a wall of 
adamant between the people and the sovereign. — Gladstone. 

14. Yes, it would be rash to say that they have no reasons. 

15. 'Tis immortality to die aspiring. — Chapman. 

16. How bitter a thing it is to look into happiness 
through another man's eyes! — Shakespeare. 



English Grammar and Analysis 71 

17. If it be a sin to covet honour, 

I am the most offending soul alive. — Shakespeare. 

18. How sweet a thing it is to wear a crown, 
Within whose circuit is Elysium 

And all that poets feign of bliss and joy! 

— 'Shakespeare. 

19. Tis better to be lowly horn, 

.and range with humble livers in content, 
Than to be perked up in glistering grief, 
And wear a golden sorrow. — Shakespeare. 

20. 'Tis well said again; 

And 'tis a kind of good deed to say well: 
And yet words are no deeds. — (Shakespeare. 

21. 'Tis a cruelty 

To load a falling man. — Shakespeare. 

22. 'Twere to consider too curiously, to consider so. 

23. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child! — Shakespeare. 

24. It is the lot of man but once to die. — Maries. 

25. It is not necessary to light a candle to the sun. — 
Sidney. 

26. Be wise today; 'tis madness to defer. — Young. 

27. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

— Young. 

28. 'Tis impious in a good man to be sad. — Young. 

29. 'Tis man's to fight, but Heaven's to give success. — 
Pope. 

30. It never was our guise 

To slight the poor, or aught humane despise. — Pope. 

31. The lot of man — to suffer and to die. — Pope. 

32. Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. — Thompson. 

33. It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright. — Frank- 
lin. 

34. Oft has it been my lot to mark 

A proud, conceited, talking spark. — Merrick. 

35. 'Tis our true policy to steer clear of permanent al- 
liances with any portion of the foreign world. — Washington. 



72 A Teachers' Manual 

36. Ah, who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep where Fame's proud temple shines afar? 

— Beattie. 

37. Perhaps it was right to dissemble your love, 

But — why did you kick me down stairs? — Kemble. 

38. Ah, gentle dames! it gars me greet 
To think how monie counsels sweet, 
How monie lengthened sage advices 

The husband frae the wife despises. — Burns. 

39. It is the greatest courage to be able to bear the im- 
putation of the want of courage. — Clay. 

40. Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, 

But to be young was very heaven! — Wordsworth. 

41. 'Tis hers to pluck the amaranthine flower of faith.-- 
Wordsworth. 

42. 'Tis not the whole of life to live, 

Xor all of death to die. — Montgomery. 

43. It is good to love the unknown. — Lanib. 

44. 'Tis sweet to think that where'er we rove 

We are sure to find something blissful and dear. 

— Moore. 

45. 'Tis sweet to hear the watchdog's honest bark 

Bay deep-mouthed welcome as we draw near home; 
'Tis sweet to know there is an eye will mark 
Our coming, and look brighter when we come. 

— Byron. 

46. It is as impossible for a man to be cheated by any 
one but himself, as for a thing to be and not to be at the 
same time. — Emerson. 

47. How dull it is to pause, to make an end, 
To rust unburnished, not to shine in use, — 
As tho' to breathe were life! — Tennyson. 

48. 'Tis better to have loved and lost, 

Than never to have loved at all. — Tennyson. 

49. When change itself can give no more, 
'Tis easy to be true. — Sedley. 

50. It behooves a person to make a trial of every thing 
before arms. — Terence. 



English Grammar and Analysis 73 

51. It is easy for men to talk one thing and think another. 
— Publius Syrus. 

52. It is a very hard undertaking to seek to please every- 
body. — Publius Syrus. 

53. It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. 
— Idem. 

54. It is better to learn late than never. — Idem. 

55. It is a consolation to the wretched to have com- 
panions in misery. 

56. It takes a wise man to discover a wise man. — Di- 
ogones. 

57. It is good to live and learn. — Cervantes. 

58. It is not permitted to the most equitable of men to 
be a judge in his own cause. — Pascal. 

59. It is better to dwell in a corner of the housetop than 
with a brawling woman in a wide house. — Proverbs. 

60. It is better to go to the house of mourning than to 
go to the house of feasting. — Ecclesiastes. 

61. Is it not lawful for me to do what I will with mine 
own ? — Matthew. 

62. It is good to be zealously affected always in a good 
thing. — Galatians. 

63. It is not easy for a man to speak of his own books. 
— Dickens. 

64. It is the glory and merit of some men to write well 
and of others not to write at all. — La Bruyere. 

65. It is no happiness to live long, nor unhappiness to die 
soon; happy is he that hath lived long enough to die well. 
— Quarles. 

66. It is the vain endeavor to make ourselves what we 
are not that has strewn history with so many broken pur- 
poses and lives left in the rough. — Lowell. 

67. It is easier to carry the world in one's thought than 
on the shoulders. — Olcott. 

68. It is good to make a jesit, but not to make a trade of 
jesting. — Fuller. 

69. It is as difficult to appropriate the thoughts of others 
as it is to invent. — Emerson. 



74 A Teachers' Manual 

70. It is far better to give work which is above the men 
than to educate the men to be above their work. — Ruskin. 

71. It is better to suffer wrong than to do it, and happier 
to be sometimes cheated than not to trust. — Johnson. 

72. It is not difficult to conceive, however, that for many 
reasons a man writes much better than he lives. — Johnson. 

73. It is a brave thing to understand something of what 
we see. — (Harvey's Grammar.) 

74. Is it not sweet to think, hereafter, 

When the spirit leaves this sphere, 
Love with deathless wings, shall waft her 

To those she hath mourned for here? — Moore. 

75. It is saying less than the truth to affirm that an ex- 
cellent book is like a well-chosen and well-tended fruit 
tree. — Coleridge. 

Observations 

Sentence 1, To cure is in apposition with It; anything is 
the object of cure; of smoking limits cure; smoking is a 
mere noun, having no participial nature. Some writers 
suggest that in this type of sentence the infinitive should 
be made the real subject of the sentence and that It 
should be called an independent element. The appo- 
sitional treatment seems, in the main, more satisfactory. 
Here the infinitive phrase clearly may be called the ante- 
cedent of It. 

Sentence 2. To behave and to evade are in apposition 
with it; Being an oracle is an independent participial 
phrase; oracle is an attribute after Being; this construc- 
tion is now spoken of as a "hanging participle," and is 
consequently condemned. There is no noun or pronoun 
expressed in the sentence to which this phrase belongs. 
Who is the one that is the oracle? It would not be en- 
tirely objectionable to permit the participle to limit my- 
self; myself is the object of behave; like is an adverb lim- 
iting behave; the phrase [unto] oracle limits like; unto 
must be supplied. To evade is the second element of the 
compound infinitive phrase; questions is the object of 
evade; man's limits questions, and decent limits man's; 



English Grammar and Analysis 75 

any limits man's. In way limits evade; way is limited by 
the adjective clause that Apollo ... at Delphi. Of this 
clause Apollo is the subject; did evade, the predicate; 
evade must be supplied; often limits did evade; too limits 
often; at Delphi limits did evade. The word that may be 
expanded to its equivalent in which; this phrase modifies 
did evade. In case in which is not used, let the preposition 
in be supplied to govern that; this phrase modifies did 
evade. 

Sentence 3: The infinitive is in apposition with It. 
Honour is the object of would fit; better is an adverb. 

Sentence 4: To breathe is in apposition with It; air is 
the object of breathe; during weeks limits breathe; in cir- 
cumstances limits citizens. Yet is an adverb modifying 
was; Nor may be taken as a co-ordinate negative conjunc- 
tion joining the sentence with some preceding thought; it 
is not independent. Sweet calls it, in such cases, a "nega- 
tive conjunction," the equivalent of and not. Earle, in his 
Philology of the English Tongue, divisions 508-9, shows the 
early use of nor as a conjunctive and as a negative word, 
and cites the fact that Chaucer uses ne, the equivalent of 
nor, both as an alternative word then as a negative term. 

Sentence 5: To say is in apposition with It; the complex 
noun clause whether the . . . heir apparent is the object of 
say. The principal part of this noun clause is "whether 
the place belonged to his steward or to his heir apparent." 
The compound phrase to steward and to heir limits be- 
longed; or is a co-ordinate conjunction; whether is a sub- 
ordinate conjunction, used as an introductory conjunction 
to introduce the noun clause. Of the subordinate part of 
the noun clause, he is the subject; had left, the incomplete 
predicate; which, the object complement; and vacant, the 
objective complement. The antecedent of which is place, 
to which it joins the clause. 

Sentence 6: To use is in apposition with It; which is 
the object of could understand, and joins the clause to its 
antecedent marks; ignorant is an adjective pronoun; the 
and most each limit ignorant. 

Sentence 7. To swagger is in apposition with It; by 



76 A Teachers' Manual 

night and about town limit swagger. The compound par- 
ticipial phrases breaking windows, upsetting sedans, beat- 
ing men, and offering caresses are used as the attribute 
•complement after swagger; windows, sedans, men, and 
caresses are the respective objects of the participles they 
follow. To women limits offering. The participles are ad- 
jective in force. A second view suggests itself in this 
type of sentence; that is, to have the participial phrase 
modify men. Here this view does not seem so well to 
bring out the meaning of the sentence. 

Sentence 8. How is an adverb of degree modifying 
sweet. 

Sentence 9. The infinitive is in apposition with It; 
better is the attribute in the principal clause, and is modi- 
fied by the subordinate clause. To rust is in apposition with 
it, understood, the subject of the' subordinate clause; is, 
understood, is the incomplete predicate; good, understood, 
is the attribute complement; than limits good and joins the 
clause to better; in each case out is an adverb of manner. 
The subordinate clause denotes degree. See page 36. 

Sentence 10. To be is in apposition with It; critical is 
an attribute after to be. The subordinate adverbial clause 
of degree limits the attribute easier; of this, to be com- 
pleted by the attribute correct is in apposition with it, 
understood, the subject; is, understood, the incomplete 
predicate, and easy, understood, the attribute; than limits 
easy and joins the clause to easier. 

Sentence IT. This sentence should be expanded to some- 
thing like the following to show its meaning: "It is not 
best to swap horses when one is crossing a stream." The 
infinitive explains It; the verb is is modified by the ad- 
verbial clause; when modifies is and is crossing and joins 
the clause to is of the principal clause. 

Sentence 12. The infiinitive is in apposition with It; 
the subordinate clause into what hands . . . might fall is 
one denoting concession and limits is. Of the subordinate 
clause government is the subject; might fall, the predicate; 
into hands limits might fall; hands is modified by what- 
soever. Often soever is separated from the compound 



English Grammar and Analysis 77 

term of which it forms a part and should be restored to its 
proper position before analysis is begun. There is no 
subordinate conjunction expressed other than the con- 
necting force inherent in the compound relative adjective 
whatsoever; this word then should be taken as the idio- 
matic connective. See page 31. 

Sentence 13. The infinitive is in apposition with It; 
stand is completed by the attribute adjective like; like is 
modified by the phrase unto wall, unto being understood; 
the phrase between people and sovereign limits stand. 

Sentence 14. To say is explanatory of it; the noun 
clause introduced by the introductory subordinate con- 
junction that is the object of say; have takes reasons for 
its object. Whenever have denotes possession, it always 
takes an object. Yes is an adverb used independently; it 
is here a "sentence word." 

Sentence 15. To die is in apposition with It ('Tis being 
expanded to It is); aspiring is an adjective participle used 
as an attribute after die. 

Sentence 16. The infinitive is in apposition with it, and 
is modified by into happiness and through eyes; another 
limits man's; a and bitter limit thing; How limits bitter. 

Sentence 17. The principal clause is "I am the most of- 
fending soul alive." The subordinate clause denotes con- 
dition and limits am; If is the subordinate conjunction; see 
p. 31. The infinitive is in apposition with it, and is com- 
pleted by the object honour. In the principal clause the, 
offending, and alive are modifiers of soul; offending is not a 
participle, but a mere adjective, and is limited by most. 

Sentence 18. To wear is in apposition with the subject it, 
and is completed by the object crown; sweet and a limit 
thing; How limits sweet. Elysium and all are the subjects 
of the second member; is is the predicate, and has the sinsu- 
lar number because the subjects are taken separately so as 
to be emphatically distinguished; Within circuit limits is; 
whose limits circuit, and joins the subordinate clause to the 
antecedent crown. The adjective pronoun all is modified by 
the second subordinate clause, "that poets feign of bliss and 
joy." Of this poets is the subject; feign, the incomplete 



78 A Teachers' Manual 

predicate; that, the object; of bliss and joy limit feign; 
that joins the clause to all. 

Sentence 19. The infinitives to be born and [to] range 
are in apposition with the subject It (It is being the equiva- 
lent of 'Tis) ; is is the incomplete predicate of the principal 
clause and better, the attribute complement; lowly limits 
be born; with livers and in content limit range. The 
subordinate clause is one of degree, and limits better; of 
this clause to be perked and [to] wear are in apposition 
with it, understood, the subject; are, understood, the incom- 
plete predicate; good, understood, the attribute; be perked 
is modified by up and in grief; grief by the adjective glis- 
tering; wear is completed by the object sorrow; Than limits 
good, understood, of the subordinate clause, and joins the 
clause to better. 

Sentence 21. To load is in apposition with the subject 
It pt is being tne equivalent of 'Tis); man is the object of 
load; a and falling, a mere adjective, limit man. 

Sentence 22. 'Twere should be expanded to its gram- 
matical equivalent It would be; the second to consider in 
the sentence is in apposition with the subject It; so limits 
consider; the verb would be or were is completed by the 
attribute to consider; this consider is limited by curiously; 
curiously, by too. 

■Sentence 23. To have is in apposition with the subject 
it; is the incomplete predicate; sharper, the attribute; 
sharper is modified by the adverb of degree How and by 
the subordinate adverbial clause of degree than a serpent's 
tooth [is sharp]. Of this subordinate clause, tooth is the 
subject; is, understood, the incomplete predicate; sharp, 
understood, the attribute; than modifies sharp, and joins, 
the clause to sharper; a modifies serpent's. 

Sentence 24. To die is in apposition with it; once limits 
die, and but limits once. 

Sentence 25. The infinitive is completed by candle and 
is modified by to sun. 

Sentence 26. In the first member of this compound 
sentence today may be taken as an adverb limiting Be; or 
it may be used as an adverbial noun of time, the object 



English Grammar and Analysis 79 

of some preposition understood, the entire phrase limiting 
Be. In the second member to defer is in apposition with 
It, 'Tis being expanded to It is. 

Sentence 27. To talk and [to] ask are in apposition with 
it, 'Tis being expanded to It is. With hours limits talk; ask 
is completed by the double direct object: them and the 
clause what report they bore to heaven. There is little 
or no justification in calling them the indirect object after 
ask. The history of the word ask in the classic languages 
and in Oixl English shows it to take a double direct object: 
one denotng the person; the other, the thing asked. If the 
sentence, "They asked him," were under consideration, 
no one would hesitate to call him the direct object; neither 
would there be any delay in calling question the direct 
object in "They asked a question." If both words are put 
in the same sentence, "They asked him a question," the 
words sustain exactly the same relationship to the verb as 
if they were used separately after asked; that is, each is 
the direct object of the verb. Of the noun clause, they is 
the subject, bore the incomplete predicate, report the onject 
complement; report is limited by what, and bore by to 
heaven. 

Sentence 28. The infinitive is in apposition with It, 'Tis 
being expanded to It is; sad is an attribute complement 
after to be; in man limits impious. 

Sentence 29. The second member of this compound sen- 
tence should be expanded to "But it is Heaven's place to 
give success." In each member the infinitive is in appo- 
sition with the subject; man's limits some such word as 
place, office, or duty, understood. 

Sentence 30. The infinitives To slight and [to] despise 
are in apposition with the subject It; poor is the object of 
slight, and aught the object of despise; never limits was. 

Sentence 31. The infinitives of this phrase are in apposi- 
tion with the noun lot; if the sentence is expanded to "It is 
the lot of man," etc., the infinitives are in apposition with 
It. 

Sentence 32. The infinitives to rear and to teach are in 
apposition with the independent noun task; thought is the 



80 A Teachers' Manual 

object of rear; idea and how to shoot are the double direct 
objects of teach. The word teach takes a double direct 
object — one of person and one denoting a thing. The use 
of this word in Greek, Latin, and Old English is certainly 
sufficient to establish its character in English. In each 
of these languages teach is never followed by the dative 
case, that is, the indirect objective after to, understood; it is 
always followed by the direct objective case. In the sen- 
tence, "He taught grammar," grammar is plainly the direct 
object; in "He taught John/' John is also the direct object 
of taught. If the two objects are brought together in the 
same sentence, for instance, "He taught John grammar," 
the relationship of these objects to the verbs is in nowise 
changed. There is absolutely no justification in constru- 
ing John as an indirect object of taught. The older texts 
seem to be conspicuously ambitious to nurture the idea that 
something was done to or at John. The logic of the con- 
struction easily indicates that John is acted upon directly. 
As a matter of fact, if any preposition is supplied, it would 
be more clearly placed before grammar so that the sentence 
would read, "He taught John in grammar;" but no prepo- 
sition should be supplied before either noun. Then, in the 
sentence given, idea is one direct object of teach and how 
to shoot, another object; how limits shoot. See p. 69. 

Sentence 33. The phrase "for an empty bag to stand 
upright" is in apposition with It; for takes the word bag for 
its object, and is here an introductory preposition inas- 
mucn as it does not express a relationship between two 
terms. To stand limits bag; upright is an adjective at- 
tribute after stand. The single term bag is not the entire 
object of for, but rather an empty bag to stand upright 
is the object. 

Sentence 34. To mark is completed by the object speak, 
and is explanatory of it. The words conceited and talking 
are mere adjectives; oft limits has been. 

Sentence 35. Clear limits steer; of alliances limits clear. 

Sentence 36. Ah is independent; who is the subject of 
the principal clause, can tell, the incomplete predicate; 
all the words following tell are a complex noun clause, the 



• English Grammar and Analysis 81 

object of can tell. Of this noun clause it is the subject; is, 
the incomplete predicate; hard, the attribute complement; 
to climb is in apposition with it. Climb is completed by 
steep; steep is modified by the noun clause "where Fame's 
proud temple shines afar." Of this, temple is the subject; 
shines, the predicate; afar modifies shines; where modifies 
shines and joins the clause to steep. See page 10. 

Sentence 37. A compound sentence; Perhaps is a modal 
adverb limiting was. Why and down stairs limit did kick. 

Sentence 38. Ah and dames are independent. It is the 
subject of the principal clause of the sentence; gars, the 
Scotch dialect for makes, is the incomplete predicate; me 
is the object complement, and the infinitive greet, the dia- 
lect for weep, is the object complement; the to is omit- 
ted after gars, or make. To think is in apposition with the 
subject it; the noun clause, "how monie counsels . . . the 
wife despises," is the object of think. Of this clause hus- 
band is the subject; despises, the incomplete predicate; 
counsels and advices are the objects; counsels is modified 
by sweet and monie, the dialect for many; monie, by how; 
advices is modified by sage and lengthened, a mere adjec- 
tive; lengthened is limited by monie, and monie by How; 
frae wife limits counsels and advices; frae is the dialect 
for from. 

Sentence 39. To be is in apposition with It; able is an 
attribute complement after be; to bear limits able; imputa- 
tion is the object of bear. 

Sentence 40. To be is completed by the attribute alive, 
and explains it; in dawn limits either be or alive. In the 
second member young is the attribute after be; very is here 
an adjective limiting heaven. 

Sentence 41. Here is a personal pronoun in the posses- 
sive case limiting the attribute complement, understood, 
after is. It is far better to discard the idea of a possessive 
pronoun and to call all uses resembling the so-called pos- 
sessive pronoun personal pronouns in the possessive case. 
This avoids many unnecessary difficulties. 

Sentence 42. To live is in apposition with It; in th£ 



82 A Teachers' Manual 

second member the infinitive explains it, understood. Nor 
is the negative co-ordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 44. To think is in apposition with It; think 
takes for its object the noun clause that we are sure to 
find, etc. Of this clause we is the subject; are, the incom- 
plete predicate; sure, the attribute complement; that is an 
introductory conjunction; sure is modified by to find; find 
is completed by the object something. The little clause of 
place, where'er we roam, limits are; where'er itself modi- 
fies both are and rove. See page 24. 

Sentence 45. To hear is in apposition with It, and is com- 
pleted by the object bark and by the objective complement 
bay; bay is an infinitive; the to is omitted after the verb 
hear. As we draw near home is an adverbial clause of 
time limiting bay; as itself limits bay and draw (See p. 21) ; 
near may be called an adverbial preposition taking home 
as an object; in Old English neah, which in modern English 
is near, is called in such 'Constructions as here given an 
adverbial preposition, and takes the dative case after it. 
The dative cases 'Corresponds to our indirect object case 
with to or for. In modern English one might also construe 
the words correctly by parsing near as an adverbial modifier 
of draw and having the phrase [to] home modify near. 
Either view is acceptable. In the second member to know 
is in apposition with It; know is followed by a noun clause 
used as the object complement; of this noun clause eye 
is the subject; is the predicate; there is independent as 
an expletive; eye is modified 'by an adjective clause [that] 
will mark, etc. In this clause, that, understood, is the sub- 
ject; will mark and look the compound incomplete predi- 
cate; the mere noun coming is the object of will mark; 
brighter is the attribute after will look; when we come 
is a clause of time limiting will look; when limits both 
come and will look; see page 21. 

Sentence 46. For a man to be cheated is in apposition 
with It; the introductory preposition for takes man to be 
cheated as its object; man, the chief word of the phrase, 
is limited by to be cheated; be cheated, by one; one, by 
any and but himself. The attribute of the principal clause 



English Grammar and Analysis 83 

is impossible, which is modified by as. The subordinate 
clause denotes degree, and modifies as, of the principal 
clause. For a thing to be and not to be at the same time 
is the subject of the subordinate clause; is, understood, is 
the incomplete predicate; impossible, understood, the at- 
tribute; as limits impossible, and joins the clause to as 
of the principal clause; see page 27; for takes thing as the 
leading object term; thing is modified by to be and to be 
not; not limits the second be; at time limits both infinitives. 

Sentence 47. The infinitives are each in apposition with 
it; unburnished, a mere adjective, is the attribute comple- 
ment after rust; shine is limited by not and in use; How 
modifies the attribute dull; the clause understood as it 
would be limits is; as modifies is and would be; tho' to 
breathe were life limits would be in the clause understood; 
tho' is a mere connective. This last clause denotes condi- 
tion. 

Sentence 48. The infinitives, to have loved and [to have] 
lost, are in apposition with It; is, is the incomplete predi- 
cate; better, the attribute. The subordinate clause limits 
better and denotes degree. The subject of this clause it, 
understood, is explained by the appositive to have loved, 
and is modified by the prepositional phrase at all; is, un- 
derstood, is the incomplete predicate; good, understood, is 
the attribute complement; than is a conjunctive adverb 
limiting good, and joining the clause to better. 

Sentence 49. The subordinate clause, introduced by 
when, modifies is; when itself limits is and can give; more 
is an adjective pronoun, the object of can give. 

Sentence 50. The infinitive is in apposition with the 
subject It; trial is the object of make; before arms limits 
thing. The prepositional phrase may be expanded to a 
clause, "before he tries arms." Then before becomes a 
conjunctive adverb limiting tries and make; the clause 
limits make. Before may be taken as a preposition with 
the understood clause as its object; the entire structure 
would then limit make. 

Sentence 51. The infinitives are in apposition with the 
subject, and are joined by the conjunction and. 



84 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 52. To please is the object of seek; everybody 
is the object of please; to seek is in apposition with It; 
the attribute, undertaking, is modified by a and hard. 

Sentence 53. To maturity limits bring. 

Sentence 54. This sentence should be expanded to "It is 
better to learn late than it is good to learn never." Although 
this expression sounds awkward and unidiomatic, yet the 
omitted elements must be supplied before the sentence 
properly can be construed. To learn, of the principal clause, 
is in apposition with It; better is the attribute complement; 
the subordinate clause limits better; than is a conjunctive 
adverb modifying good, understood, and joins the clause to 
better; the second to learn, understood, is in apposition 
with it, understood; never limits learn, understood. 

Sentence 55. Wretched is an adjective pronoun; in 
misery limits companions. 

Sentence 58. Judge is the attribute after be; in cause 
limits be. 

Sentence 59. The subordinate clause should read "than 
it is good to dwell with a brawling woman in a wide house;" 
this clause limits better; than modifies good, understood, 
and joins the clause to better; in house and with woman 
limit dwell understood. The first infinitive is in apposition 
with it; the second is in apposition with it, understood, the 
subject of the subordinate clause. 

Sentence 60. The words is good should be supplied in 
the subordinate clause; for the modifying of the clauses 
see sentences 9, 48, 54. 

Sentence 61. For me to do is in apposition with it; me, 
modified by to do, is the object of for; do is completed by 
the noun clause, "what I will [do] with mine own?" This 
clause is the object of it; I is the subject; will do, the in- 
complete predicate; what, the object; with own limits will 
do; own is a possessive adjective pronoun. 

Sentence 62. The infinitive phrase to be affected is modi- 
fied by zealously, always, and in thing. 

Sentence 63.. For a man to speak is in apposition with 
It; man, with all its modifiers, is the object of for; the 



English Grammar and Analysis 85 

single word man should not be given as the sole object 
of for. 

Sentence 64. The second member had better be supplied 
— "and it is the glory of others not to write at all." • 

Sentence 65. The first member is itself compound, and 
should read, "It is no happiness to live long, nor is it un- 
happiness to die soon;" nor connects these members. The 
last member is joined to these by the word but, understood; 
enough limits long; long limits hath lived; to die limits 
enough, and well limits die. 

Sentence 66. To make explains the subject It; ourselves 
is the object complement of make; what we are not is the 
objective complement of make. This construction of a 
clause used as the objective complement rarely occurs 
(See p. 7). Of this clause we is the subject; are, the incom- 
plete predicate; what, the attribute complement; not limits 
are. - Another view of the construction may place some 
term understood as the objective complement and the ante- 
cedent of what. Then the clause would become adjectival, 
limiting this antecedent understood. There is little prefer- 
ence in the choice of constructions. The adjective clause 
beginning "that has strewn," etc., limits the attribute en- 
deavor; broken is a mere adjective modifying purposes; 
left is an adjective participle limiting lives. 

Sentence 67. The subordinate clause than [to carry it] 
on the shoulder [is easy] limits easier; than modifies easy 
understood and joins the clause to easier. iSee sentences 
9, 48, 54, and 60. 

Sentence 68. Jesting is a mere noun limiting make. 

Sentence 69. The first as limits difficult; the subordinate 
clause limits this as; the second as is a conjunctive adverb 
limiting difficult the attribute understood of the subordinate 
clause, and joins the clause to the adverb as, of the princi- 
pal. 

Sentence 70. To give is in apposition with It, and is com- 
pleted by the object work. The clause, "which is above 
the men," limits work; of this clause, which is the subject 
and joins the clause to work; is is the incomplete predicate; 
the prepositional phrase above men is the attribute comple- 



86 A Teachers' Manual 

ment. The subordinate clause limits better. The subject 
of this clause is to educate; educate is completed by the 
object men; to be above their work is the objective comple- 
ment; the infinitive is completed by the prepositional 
phrase above work, an attribute complement; is is the in- 
complete predicate understood; good, understood, the 
attribute complement; than limits good and joins the clause 
to better. 

Sentence 71. For the full grammatical construction, let 
the second member be expanded to "and it is happier to 
be sometimes cheated than not to trust is happy." For the 
use of the infinitives and connectives see sentences 9, 48, 
54, 67, and 70. To do in the first subordinate clause is in 
apposition with the subject it, understood. 

Sentence 72. However may be taken as a weak modifier 
of is; it is almost independent; that introduces the noun 
clause the object of conceive; better limits writes; much 
limits better; than he lives modifies better; than limits 
lives and joins the clause to better. 

Sentence 73. The prepositional phrase of what we see 
limits something; the clause what we see is the object of 
of; what is the object of see. 

Sentence 74. Hereafter limits leaves; "When the spirit 
leaves this sphere" limits shall waft, and constitutes the 
subordinate part of the entire noun clause beginning "Love 
with deathless wings," the object of think; when is a con- 
junctive adverb limiting leaves and shall waft; To those 
modifies shall waft. The adjective clause [whom] she hath 
mourned for here limits those; for whom modifies hath 
mourned; whom joins the clause to those. 

Sentence 75. To affirm is in apposition with It; is saying 
is limited by the adverb less; less is modified by the ad- 
verbial clause, than truth [is] ; of this clause is, under- 
stood, is the predicate; than limits is and joins the clause 
to less; affirm is completed by the noun clause used as an 
object; book is me subject of this clause; is, the incomplete 
predicate; like, the attribute complement; like is modified 
by L unto] fruit-tree; fruit-tree is modified by the adjectives 
a, well-chosen, and well-tended. 



English Grammar and Analysis 87 

The Infinitive used as Object Complement 

1. He aims to study carefully. 

2. You need not go there. 

3. He dare not say that. 

4. He had to go. 

5. We told him to work. 

6. The teacher told her pupils to sing. 

7. He had to learn a long lesson. 

8. He will strive to succeed, whatever the cost. 

9. I do not want to handle, to profane the leaves, their 
winding sheets. — Lamb. 

lu. Beshrew the man who, on such a day as this, the 
general festival, should affect to stand aloof. — Lamb. 

11. The sick and wounded had to be cared for, torn rig- 
ging looked to, splintered timbers mended, decks scoured, 
and guns and arms cleaned up and put to rights. — Froude. 

12. He proposed to follow them. 

13. He began to think that he should best provide for his 
safety. 

14. A bishop ought to die on his legs. — Woolton. 

15. A man may be allowed to change his opinions, never 
his principles. — George IH. 

16. Pain would I climb, yet fear I to fall. — Raleigh. 

17. I have not yet begun to fight. — Paul Jones. 

18. I propose to get into fortune's way. 

19. It is likely you may never need to do it again. 

20. I want to go away. 

21. I mean not to run with the hare and hold with the 
hound. — Lyly. 

22. When love begins to sicken and decay, 

It useth an enforced ceremony. — .Shakespeare. 

23. He died 

As one that had been studied in his death 
To throw away the dearest thing he owed, 
As 'twere a careless trifle. — Shakespeare. 

24. I 'gin to be aweary of the sun. — Shakespeare. 

25. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. — Shake- 
speare. 



£8 A Teachers' Manual 

26. Though I am young, I scorn to flit 

On the wings of borrowed wit. — Wither. 

27. He knew 

Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme. — Milton. 

28. Liars ought to have good memories. — A. Sidney. 

29. Learn to read slow: all other graces 

Will follow in their proper places. — W. Walker. 

30. But wild Ambition loves to slide, not stand, 

And Fortune's ice prefers to Virtue's land. — Dryden. 

31. I am resolved to grow fat and look young at forty. — 
Dryden. 

32. Death in itself is nothing; but we fear 

To be we know not what, we know not where. 

— Dryden. 

33. Defer not till tomorrow to be wise, 

Tomorrow's sun to thee may never rise. — Congreve. 

34. There taught us how to live; and (oh, too high 
The price of knowledge!) taught us how to die. 

— Tickell. 

35. Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel. — Pope. 

36. Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As to be hated needs but to be seen; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 

We first endure, then pity, then embrace. — Pope. 

37. Learn of the little nautilus to sail, 

Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale. — Pope. 

38. For this we bear to live, or dare to die. 

39. Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 

— Pope. 

40. Next o'er his books his eyes begin to roll, 
In pleasing memory of all he stole. — Pope. 

41. Teach me to feel another's woe, 
To hide the fault I see. — Pope. 

42. Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar 
but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give 
his days and nights to the volumes of Addison. — Dr. John- 
son. 



English Grammar and Analysis 89 

43. Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife 
Their sober wishes never learned to stray. — Gray. 

44. Taught by that Power that pities me, 
I learn to pity them. — Goldsmith. 

45. There is, however, a limit at which forbearance ceases 
to< be a virtue. — Burke. 

46. Teach him how to live, 

Oh, oh still harder lesson! how to die. — Porteus. 

47. Conscience has no more to do with gallantry than it 
has with politics. — Sheridan. 

48. Oh, what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practice to deceive. — Scott. 

49. An instinctive taste teaches men to build their 
churches in flat countries with spire steeples, which, as they 
cannot be referred to any other object, point as with silent 
finger to the sky and star. — Coleridge. 

50. A thousand years scarce serve to form a state. — 
Byron. 

51. That is the best government which desires to make 
the people happy, and knows how to make them happy. — 
Maoaulay. 

52. And since, I never dare to write 
As funny as I can. — Holmes. 

53. Little deeds of kindness, little words of love, 
Help to make earth happy like the heaven above. 

— Julia A. Fletcher. 

54. What I aspired to be 

And was not, comforts me. — Browning. 

55. Whatever was required to be done, the circumlocution 
office was beforehand with all the public departments in 
the art of perceiving How Not To Do It. — Dickens. 

56. They are slaves who fear to speak 
For the fallen and the weak. — Lowell. 

57. They are slaves who dare not be 

In the right with two or three. — Lowell. 

58. I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all 
summer. — Grant. 

59. He knows not when to be silent who knows not when 
to speak. — Publins Syrus. 



90 A Teachers' Manual 

60. There is great ability in knowing how to conceal one's 
ability. — Rochefoucauld. 

61. So teach us to number our days, that we may apply 
our hearts unto wisdom. — Psalms. 

62. We have left undone those things which we ought 
to have done; and we have done those things which we 
ought not to have done. — Book of Prayer. 

63. Men who undertake considerable things, even in a 
regular way, ought to give us ground to presume ability. — 
Burke. 

64. Next to doing things that deserve to be written, there 
is nothing that gets a man more credit, or gives him more 
pleasure, than to write things that deserve to be read. — 
Lord Chesterfield. 

65. The word of God tends to make large-minded, noble- 
minded men. — Beecher. 

b6. No hook that will not improve by repeated readings 
deserves to be read at all. — Carlyle. 

67. A good conscience expects to be treated with perfect 
confidence. — Hugo. 

68. He does nothing who endeavors to do more than is 
allowed to humanity. — Dr. Johnson. 

69. He is a truly good man who desires always to bear 
the inspection of good men. — Rochefoucauld. 

7 0. Men hate those to whom they have to lie. — Hugo. 

71. Great men need to be lifted upon the shoulders of the 
whole world, in order to conceive their ideas or perform 
their great deeds. — Hawthorne. 

72. A bad man is worse when he pretends to be a saint. 
— Bacon. 

73. At the workingman's house hunger looks in but dares 
not enter. — Franklin. 

74. People who do not know how to laugh are always 
pompous and self-conceited. — Thackeray. 

75. Every library should try to be complete on something, 
if it were only the history of pin-heads. — Holmes. 

76. No man can afford to invest his being in anything 
lower than faith, hope, love, — these three, the greatest of 
which is love. — Beecher. 



English Grammar and Analysis 91 

77. Wherever luxury ceases to be innocent, it also ceases 
to be beneficial. — Hume. 

78. Learn to be good readers, which is perhaps a more 
difficult thing than you imagine. — Carlyle. 

79. He is no whole man until he knows how to earn a 
blameless livelihood. — Emerson. 

SO. I think you will find that people who honestly mean 
to be true really contradict themselves much more rarely 
than those who try to be "consistent." — Holmes. 

81. Woe unto him that is never alone, and cannot bear 
to be alone. — Hamerton. 

82. That virtue which requires to be ever guarded is 
scarce worth the sentinel. — Goldsmith. 

83. He pretended to know all about it. 

84. Learn well to know how much need not be known, 
And what that knowledge which impairs your sense. 

85. I tried to remember what I had read about encounters 
with hears. — Warner. 

86. I tried, to think what is the best way to kill a bear 
with a gun, when you are not near enough to club him 
with the stock. — Warner. 

87. He ordered the men to march. 

88. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than ex- 
perience to make me sad. — Shakespeare. 

89. He had better go. 

90. I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 
Than isuch a Roman. — Shakespeare. 

91. He had rather go than stay. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. To study is the object of aims, and is limited 
by carefully. 

Sentence 2. Go is an infinitive, the object of the transi- 
tive verb need; there limits go. After need the "to" is 
omitted. 

Sentence 3. Say is an infinitive, the object of the transi- 
tive verb dare; that is the object of say. After dare the 
"to" is omitted. 



92 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 4. Had is here a transitive verb, taking to go 
as its object. 

Sentence 5. Him is the indirect object of told, and to 
work the direct object. 

Sentence 6. Pupils is the indirect object of told, and to 
sing the direct object. 

Sentence 7. To learn is the object of had; lesson is the 
object of learn. 

Sentence 8. To succeed is the object of will strive; the 
subordinate clause of concession, "whatever the cost," limits 
will strive. In this clause cost is the subject; may be, 
understood, the verb; whatever, the attribute complement; 
whatever joins the clause to will strive, and is here a 
subordinate-conjunctive pronoun. Another view of the con- 
nection between the sentences is to consider the connective 
as understood. 

Sentence 9. To handle is the object of want; to profane 
is in apposition with to handle; leaves is the object of 
profane, and sheets is in apposition with leaves; winding 
is a mere adjective limiting sheets. 

Sentence 10. Of this complex sentence the subject of 
the principal clause is understood; Beshrew, the verb, takes 
man for an object; the subordinate clause beginning with 
"who" limits man. In the subordinate clause who is the 
subject of should affect; to stand is the object; aloof limits 
stand; on day limits should affect; such and a limit day; 
the little adjective clause, as this [is], limits day; thi? 
is the subject; is, understood, the incomplete predicate; as 
is a relative pronoun, the attribute complement, and joins 
the clause to day; festival is in apposition with this. After 
such words as such, many, and same, as may be called a 
relative pronoun. 

Sentence 11. To be cared is the object of had; for limits 
be cared; in each of the members had to be must be sup- 
plied so that the constructions will read, "torn rigging 
had to be looked to, splintered timbers had be to mended, 
decks had to be scoured, and guns and arms had to be 
cleaned up and had to be put to rights." Each infinitive 
is the object of had; torn and splintered are mere adjec- 



English Grammar and Analysis 93 

tives; to limits be looked; up limits be cleaned; the phrase 
to rights limits be put; and, understood, connects the 
members. 

Sentence 12. To follow is the object of proposed; them 
is the object of follow. 

Sentence 13. To think is the object of began; the noun 
clause following is the object of think; that is an intro- 
ductory subordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 14. To die is the object of ought; ought is a 
past tense verb. 

Sentence 15. To change is the object of may be allowed; 
opinions is the object of change. Much of the second mem- 
ber is understood; it should read, "but he is never allowed 
to change his principles." Again to change, understood, is 
the object of is allowed; never limits is allowed, understood. 

Sentence 16. Fain limits would climb; to fall is the 
object of fear. 

Sentence 17. To fight is the object of have begun. 

Sentence 18. To get is the object of purpose. 

Sentence 19. "You may never need to do it again" is in 
apposition with It; likely is the attribute complement after 
is; to do is the object of may need; it is the object of do; 
again limits do. 

Sentence 20. To go is the object of want. 

Sentence 21. To run and [to] hold are the objects of 
mean. 

Sentence 22. Of the principal clause It is the subject; 
useth, the incomplete predicate; ceremony, the object; en- 
forced is a mere adjective limiting ceremony. The subordi- 
nate clause limits useth; love is the subject; begins, the in- 
complete predicate; to sicken and [to] decay, the objects; 
When limits begins and useth. 

Sentence 23. - The principal clause comprises only the 
first two words. As one [would die] limits died; As modi- 
fies died and would die, understood. The clause "that had 
been studied," etc., limits one; had been studied is equiva- 
lent to had studied; To throw is the object of had been 
studied. Thing is the object of throw; away limits throw. 
[That] he owed limits thing; he is the subject; owed, the 



94 A Teachers' Manual 

incomplete predicate; that, understood, the object; the an- 
tecedent of that is one. "As |_if] it were a careless trifle" 
must be expanded to "As one would do if it were a careless 
trifle." The clause of manner introduced by as limits 
throw; as limits both throw and would do, understood. The 
clause "if it were a careless trifle*' modifies would do, un- 
derstood; if is a subordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 24. To be is the object of 'gin, the equivalent of 
begin; aweary is an attribute complement after be. 

Sentence 25. To shed is the object of prepare; them is 
the object of shed; now limits shed; you, understood, is the 
subject; if joins the subordinate clause to prepare. 

Sentence 26. To flit is the object of scorn; "Though I am 
young" is a subordinate clause of concession limiting scorn; 
Though joins the clauses; borrowed is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 27. To sing and [to] build are the objects of 
knew; Himself is in apposition with He; rhyme is the object 
of build. 

Sentence 28. To have is the object of ought; memories is 
the object of have. 

Sentence 29. You, understood, is the subject of Learn; to 
read is the object of Learn; slow modifies read. The sec- 
ond member is joined to the first by the causal co-ordinate 
for, understood. 

Sentence 30. Loves and prefers are the compound 
predicate; loves is completed by the objects, to slide and 
[to] stand; the infinitives are joined by and, understood; 
not limits stand; ice is the object of prefers; to land limits 
prefers. 

Sentence 31. Am resolved is the equivalent of have re- 
solved; to grow and [to] look are the objects of am re- 
solved; flat is the attribute complement after grow; and 
young is the attribute after look; at forty limits look; forty 
is an adjective pronoun, i. e., an adjective used for a noun. 

Sentence 32. In itself limits Death; fear is completed by 
the object To be; be is followed by two noun clauses used 
as a compound attribute complement; of the first clause we 
is the subject of know and what the object; in the second, 
we is the subject; know, the incomplete predicate; and 



English Grammar and Analysis 95 

where may be taken as an adverb used as a noun, the ob- 
ject of know; or the word may be expanded to "the place 
wnere we shall be." Then place is the object of know, and 
is modified by the clause "where we shall be"; we is the 
subject; shall be the predicate; where limits shall be and 
joins the clause to place. 

Sentence 33. In the first member the subject of Defer 
is You, understood; to be, completed by the attribute wise, 
is the object of Defer; till is a preposition taking tomorrow 
as its object; the phrase limits Defer; the causal co-ordinate 
for, understood, joins the two members; to thee limits 
may rise. 

Sentence 34. There is an adverb of place limiting taught; 
the subject of taught is understood; us and to live are the 
double direct object of taught; how limits live. The second 
member is similarly treated; for the use of teach see 
page 80. The parenthetical expression is independent of 
the rest of the sentence; high limits price; Too limits high; 
for knowledge limits price; oh is independent of the other 
part of the phrase. 

Sentence 35. "Aspiring to be angels, men rebel" is the 
principal clause. The subject of it is men; rebel, the predi- 
cate; Aspiring, a present participle, limits men; to be, com- 
pleted by the attribute complement angels, is the object of 
Aspiring; the subordinate clause is joined to rebel by the 
conjunction if. This clause is analyzed as the principal. 

Sentence 36. The first two lines constitute the first 
member of this complex-compound sentence. But joins the 
members. Of the first member vice is the subject; is, the 
incomplete predicate; monster, the attribute complement. 
A and of mien limit monster; frightful limits mien; so 
limits frightful; the little clause of degree, "As to he hated 
needs but to be seen," limits so. Of this clause she, un- 
derstood, is the subject; needs, the incomplete predicate; 
to be seen, the object complement; As limits needs and 
joins the clause to so; but limits to be seen; to be hated 
modifies needs. Of the second member We is the subject; 
endure, pity, and embrace are the compound incomplete 
predicate; her, understood, is the common object of these 



96 A Teachers' Manual 

three verbs; familiar limits We; with face limits familiar; 
first modifies endure; then limits pity; then modifies em- 
brace; and, understood connects the members of the com- 
pound predicate. The words "seen too oft" should be ex- 
panded to "if she is seen too oft"; they limit the three verbs 
endure, pity, embrace. If, understood, is the connective; oft 
modifies seen; and too, oft. 

Sentence 37. You, understood, is the subject of Learn; 
of nautilus limits Learn; to sail, [to] spread, and [to] 
catch, are the objects of Learn; oar is the object of spread, 
and gale, of catch; driving is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 38. We is the subject; bear and dare are the 
compound incomplete predicate; to live is the object of 
bear, and to die is the object of dare; or connects the two 
verbs. 

Sentence 39. He, understood, is the subject of Thinks in 
the principal clause; Thinks is the incomplete predicate; 
the object is the noun clause "what ne'er was, nor is, nor 
e'er shall be." Of this clause what is the subject; was, is, 
and shall be are the compound predicate; nor connects the 
verbs; ne'er limits was, and e'er limits shall be. The sub- 
ordinate clause modifies He, understood, the subject of the 
principal clause; Whoever is the subject, whose antecedent 
is He; thinks is the incomplete predicate; to see is the 
object of thinks; piece is the object of see. 

Sentence 40. Eyes is the subject; begin, the incom- 
plete predicate; to roll, the object complement; Next, o'er 
books, and In memory limit begin; In memory can also be 
made a modifier of eyes; pleasing is a mere adjective; of all 
limits memory; the clause [that] he stole modifies the ad- 
jective pronoun all; he is the subject; stole, the incomplete 
predicate; that, understood, the object; the antecedent of 
that is all. 

Sentence 41. You, understood, is the subject; Teach is 
the incomplete predicate; me and the infinitives to feel and 
to hide are the direct objects of Teach; woe is the object 
of hide; the clause "that I see" limits fault; that is the ob- 
ject of see. For the use of teach see p. 80. 

Sentence 42. The subject of must give of the principal 



English Grammar and Analysis 97 

clause is some word understood, for instance, He; days and 
nights are the compound object of must give; to volumes 
limits must give. Whoever is the subject of the subordi- 
nate clause; wishes, the incomplete predicate; to attain, 
the object complement; style is the object of attain; who- 
ever connects the clause to its antecedent He, understood; 
English limits style; familiar and coarse, joined by but, 
limit style; not limits coarse; elegant and ostentatious, 
joined by but, also limit style; not limits ostentatious; 
these two adjective groups are joined to one another by 
and. 

Sentence 43. To stray is the object of learned; Far 
limits stray; from strife limits Far; madding modifies 
crowd's, and crowd's modifies strife; madding is a mere 
adjective. 

Sentence 44. To pity is the object of learn; them is the 
object of pity; Taught is a participle limiting I; by Power 
limits taught; that pities me is a subordinate clause modi- 
fying Power. 

Sentence 45. Of the principal clause limit is the subject; 
is, the incomplete predicate; There is independent; how- 
ever is almost independent, but inclines to modify is. The 
subordinate clause, beginning with the words at which, has 
forbearance for its subject; ceases, the incomplete predi- 
cate; and to be is the object of ceases; virtue is an at- 
tribute complement after to be; at which limits ceases; 
the antecedent of which is limit, and to it which joins the 
subordinate clause. 

(Sentence 46. You, understood, is the subject of Teach; 
him and to live and to die are the double direct objects of 
Teach; and connects the infinitives; how limits live and 
the second how, die; oh and lesson are independent of one 
another and of the other part of the sentence; harder limits 
lesson and still, harder. See p. 80. 

Sentence 47. To do is the object of has; more limits 
has; no limits more, with gallantry limits do; more 



98 A Teachers' Manual 

is also modified by the subordinate clause of degree 
"than it has with politics." Of this clause it is the subject; 
has, the incomplete predicate; to do, understood, the object 
of has; with politics limits do, understood; than modifies 
has of the subordinate clause, and joins the clause to more. 

Sentence 48. Of the principal clause, we is the subject; 
weave, the incomplete predicate; tangled is a mere ad- 
jective, limiting the object web; what and a also limit 
web; oh is independent. The subordinate clause limits 
weave; we is the subject; practice, the incomplete predi- 
cate; to deceive, the object; When limits weave and prac- 
tice and joins the the clause to weave. 

Sentence 49. This is a complex-compound sentence; of 
the principal clause taste is the subject; teaches, the in- 
complete predicate; men and to build are the double direct 
objects; for the use of teach see p. 80; churches is the 
object of build; in countries and with steeples limit build. 
The clause "which point as with silent finger to the sky 
and star" limits steeples; the clause "as they cannot be 
referred to any other object" is an adverbial clause of 
cause, limiting point. Of the adjective clause, which is the 
subject; point, the predicate; to sky and [to] star limit 
point; the ellipsis as with will have to be expanded to its 
full construction, "as it would do if it pointed with sileni 
fingers"; the clause of manner as it would do limits point, 
expressed; as limits point and would do understood; if it 
pointed with silent fingers limits would do; if is a subor- 
dinate conjunction; with fingers limits pointed, understood. 

Sentence 50. To form, completed by the object state, is 
the object of serve; scarce limits serve. 

Sentence 51. Which, the subject of the adjective clause 
limiting government, is the subject of desires and knows; 
to make is the object of de*sires; to make is the object of 
knows; the first make is completed by the object comple- 
ment people and the objective complement happy; the 
second make takes the object them and the objective com- 
plement happy; how limits knows. 

Sentence 52. To write is the object of dare; funny limits 
write; as limits funny; the clause "as I can [write]" 



English Grammar and Analysis 99 

limits as; the second as modifies can write; see p. 27. 
And joins the sentence with the thought that precedes it; 
since is a preposition with some object understood, foi 
example, [that] time. 

Sentence 53. To make is the object of Help; earth is 
the object complement and happy the objective complement 
©f make; like is an adverb limiting happy; heaven is the 
object of the preposition unto, understood; the phrase limits 
like; above limits heaven. 

Sentence 54. The subject of the principal clause is un- 
derstood, and is the subject of comforts; me is the object 
of comforts. I is the subject of aspired and was; to be is 
the object of aspired; What is the attribute after to be and 
after was; and connects aspired and was; What joins the 
subordinate clause to its antecedent understood. 

Sentence 55. Office is the subject of the principal clause; 
was, the incomplete predicate; beforehand, the attribute 
complement; with departments and in art limit before- 
hand; of perceiving limits art; perceiving is a noun par- 
ticiple having the phrase "How Not to Do It" for an object; 
To Do is the grammatical object; It is the object of Do; 
How and Not limit Do. "Whatever was required to be 
done" is a noun clause the object of in, understood. An- 
-other view equally acceptable makes this clause an ad- 
jective modifier of same antecedent understood, the object 
of in, understood. As the object of in, the prepositional 
phrase therefore would limit was, of the principal clause; 
Whatever is the subject of was required; to be done is the 
object of was required. If this is treated as an adjective 
clause, Whatever becomes a relative pronoun joining the 
clause to some antecedent understood, the object of in, 
understood. 

•Sentence 56. The clause "who fear to speak," etc., limits 
They; to speak is the object of fear; fallen and weak are 
mere adjectives used as nouns, therefore adjective pronouns. 

Sentence 57. The adjective clause "who dare not be," 
etc., limits They; be is an infinitive, the object of dare; to 
is usually understood after dare; with two or three limits 
be; two and three are adjective ponouns. 



100 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 58. To fight is the object of propose; it is the 
object fight; out and on line modify fight. The clause, "if 
it takes all summer," limits fight; if is a mere conjunction. 

Sentence 59. To be is the object of knows; silent is an 
attribute after be; when limits be; "who knows not when 
to speak" limits He; to speak is the object of knows; when 
limits speak; in bo in clauses not umits the verbs. It is 
quite unnecessary to expand, as some suggest, these 
phrases to clauses, thus making them read, "when he is to 
be silent" and "when he is to speak." 

Sentence 60. There is independent; ability is the sub- 
ject; is the predicate; in knowing modifies is; knowing 
is a noun participle having to conceal for an object; ability 
is the object of conceal; how limits conceal. 

Sentence 61. Thou, understood, is the subject of teach; 
us and to number are the direct objects of teach; So limits 
teach; days is the object of number. The subordinate 
clause denotes result and limits teach; that is a subordi- 
nate conjunction; unto wisdom limits apply. 

Sentence 62. In both members to have done is the ob- 
ject of ought, and which is the object of have done. 

Sentence 63. Even modifies the phrase in way; this 
phrase limits undertake; to give is the object of ought; us 
is the indirect and ground the direct object of give; to 
presume limits ground; ability is the object of presume. 

Sentence 64. Of the principal clause nothing is the sub- 
ject; is, the predicate; there is independent; Next is an 
adjective limiting nothing; to doing limits Next; things 
is the object of the noun participle doing; the clause "that 
deserve to be written" limits things; to be written is the 
object of deserve. The remaining part of the sentence, 
"that gets," etc., is a complex clause modifying nothing; 
man is an indirect object of gets; credit is the direct; him 
is the indirect and pleasure the direct object of gives; the 
clause "than to write," etc., limits the words more, the 
modifiers of credit and pleasure; to write is the subject of 
the verb would secure, understood; things is the object of 
write; "that deserve to be read" limits things; to be read 
is the object of deserve. 



English Grammar and Analysis 101 

Sentence 65. To make is the object of tends; men is 
the object of make; large-minded and noble-minded are 
mere adjectives modifying men. 

Sentence 66. To be read is the object of deserves; at 
all limits be read; all is an adjective pronoun; repeated is 
a mere adjective limiting the noun readings. 

Sentence 67. To be treated is the object of expects. 

Sentence 68. To do is the object of endeavors; more 
limits do; "than is allowed to humanity" limits more; 
whatever, understood, is the subject of is allowed; than 
modifies is allowed and joins the clause to more. 

Sentence 69. Truly limits good; a limits man; always 
limits bear; it may limit desires. 

Sentence 70. To Me is the object of have; to whom 
limits lie. 

Sentence 71. To be lifted is the object of need; in order 
limits need; to conceive and [to] perform are in apposition 
with order; ideas and deeds are the respective objects of 
these infinitives. 

Sentence 72. The clause, "when he pretends to be a 
saint," modifies is; when itself limits is and pretends; to 
be is the object of pretends; saint is the attribute after be. 

Sentence 73. Enter is an infinitive the object of dares; 
the to is omitted after dares; at house limits looks; the 
modifies workingman's; not limits dares. 

Sentence 74. To laugh is the object of do know; how 
limits laugh; self-conceited is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 75. To be is the object of try; complete is the 
attribute after be; the subordinate clause modifies should 
try; if is a subordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 76. To invest is the object of can afford; being 
is a noun, the object of invest; in anything limits invest; 
lower limits anything; than introduces a subordinate clause 
of which faith, hope, and love are the subject; are, under- 
stood, is the predicate; than limits are and joins the clause 
to lower; three is an adjective pronoun in apposition with 
faith, hope, love; "the greatest of which is love" limits 
three; love is the subject; greatest is the attribute; of 
which limits greatest; the antecedent of which is three. 



102 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 77. In both clauses the infinitives are the ob- 
ject of ceases; innocent is the attribute after the first to be, 
and beneficial, the attribute after the second one. 

Sentence 78. To be is the object of Learn; the clause 
"which is perhaps," etc., limits the entire principal cjsuse, 
which is the antecedent of which. 

Sentence 79. Until may be taken as a conjunctive adverb 
or as a preposition governing a noun clause; see page 21; 
to earn is the object of knows. 

Sentence 80. To be is the object of mean; true is the 
attribute after be; rarely limits contradict; more limits 
rarely; much, more; the clause introduced by than limits 
more, see p. 36; contradict themselves must be supplied 
after those. 

Sentence 81. The verb may be must be supplied; to be 
is the object of can bear; alone is an attribute after be. 

Sentence 82. To be guarded is the object of requires; 
worth is an adject, the attribute after is; sentinel is an ad- 
verbial noun of value, the object of some preposition un- 
derstood; the phrase limits worth. 

Sentence 83. About it limits know. 

Sentence 84. To know is the object of Learn; much is 
the subject of need; be known is the object of need; "And 
what that knowledge [is]" is also the object of know. 

Sentence 85. What is the object of had read; the clause 
is the object of the infinitive, which is the object of tried. 

Sentence 86. To think is the object of tried; the noun 
clause is the object of think; way is the subject of is; what, 
the attribute; to kill limits way; bear is the object of kill; 
with gun limits kill; the adverbial clause introduced by 
when limits kill; see p. 21; near is the attribute after 
are; enough limits near; to club limits enough; with stock 
limits club. 

Sentence 87. Men is the indirect object; to march, the 
direct. 

Sentence 88. This construction has occasioned some dif- 
ference of opinion. On the whole it seems best to call have 
an infinitive the object complement of had, and to call 
rather, an adjective, the objective complement; the con- 



English Grammar and Analysis 103 

struction means "I hold to have a fool, etc., better than I 
would have experience to make me sad." To make limits 
have; me is the object complement of make and merry, 
the objective complement. The subordinate clause limits 
rather; than limits would have understood. For than 
see p. 36. 

Sentence 89. Go is an infinitive the object of had; better 
is an objective complement. The construction means "He 
would hold going better." 

Sentence 90. The adjective rather is an objective com- 
plement after had; be is an infinitive the object of had; dag 
is an objective attribute after be; it is not the object of be, 
but it has the objective case because it is placed in an 
expression, which is objectively used; bay is an infinitive, 
used with be as a part of the compound object. Some 
such words as "than to he such a Roman would be good" 
will have to be supplied for the expansion of the subordi- 
nate clause; this clause limits rather. 

Sentence 91. This expression is good, idiomatic English. 
The infinitive go is the object; rather is an adjective, the 
objective complement; had is a transitive verb. [To] stay 
is the ohject of had, understood, in the subordinate clause; 
than modifies this had, and joins the clause to rather. See 
88, 89, and 90, above. 

The Infinitive used as Objective Complement 

1. We saw him run. 

2. He made me wait. 

3. They watched the smoke cur! upwards. 

4. Let him hear. 

5. I know him to be a hero. 

6. They bade him come. 

7. The experience made him look ill. 

8. He bade them follow him. 

9. They found him to be honest. 

10. I wish Vaughn to preach my funeral sermon, because 
he has known me longest. — Dean .Stanley. 

11. I wish you to understand the true principles of gov- 
ernment; I wish them carried out. — Benjamin Harrison. 



104 A Teachers' Manual 

12. L,et no guilty man escape, 

13. Let posterity cheer for us. — Washington. 

14. Let the child win his spurs, and let the day be his. — 
Edward III. 

15. Let there be no fuss about me; let me be buried with 
the men. — Sir Henry Lawrence. 

16. Let us go over the river, and sit under the refresh- 
ing shadow of the trees. 

17. Let us have peace. — Grant. 

18. Lord, now let they servant depart in peace. 

19. Let thy attire be comely, but not costly. — Lyly. 

20. Let pride go afore, shame will follow after. — Chap- 
man. 

21. I saw a smith stand with his hammer, thus. 

22. Let not the heavens hear these tell-tale women 
Rail on the Lord's anointed. — Shakespeare. 

23. Let every man be master of his time 
Till seven at night. — Shakespeare. 

24. Let Hercules himself do what he may, 

The cat will mew and the dog will have his day. 

— Shakespeare. 

25. Let not women's weapons, waterdrops, 
Stain my man's cheeks! 

26. Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel. — Shake- 
speare. 

27. You will find angling to be like the virtue of hu- 
mility. — Walton. 

28. Let us consider the reason of the case. 

29. Me let the tender office long engage 

To rock the cradle of reposing age. — Pope. 

30. Unblemished let me live, or die unknown; 

O grant an honest fame, or grant me none. — Pope. 

31. They knew him to be a sailor. 

32. Thus let me live unseen, unknown, 

Thus unlamented let me die; 
Steal from the world, and not a stone 
Tell where I lie. — Pope. 

33. Let him go abroad to a distant country; let him go 
to some place where he is not known. — Johnson. 



English Grammar and Analysis 105 

34. I find you want me to furnish you with an argument 
and intellect, too. — Goldsmith. 

35. His wit invites you by his looks to come, 

But when you knock, it never is at home. — Cowper. 

36. England expects every man to do his duty. — Nelson. 

37. A sudden thought strikes me, — let us swear an 
eternal friendship. — Frere. 

38. Let beeves and home-bred kine partake 

The sweets of Burn-mill meadow; 
The swan on still St. Mary's Lake 

Float double, swan and shadow! — Wordsworth. 

39. At length the man perceives it die away. 

And fade into the light of common day. — Wordsworth. 

40. Then let me try with all my might 
To mind what I am taught. — Taylor. 

41. I see before me the gladiator lie. — Byron. 

42. There, swan-like, let me sing and die. — Byron. 

43. Let knowledge grow from more to more. — Tennyson. 

44. Most joyful let the Poet be; 

It is through him that all men see. — Channing. 

45. Let us be of good cheer, however, remembering that 
the misfortunes hardest to bear are those which never 
come. — Lowell. 

46. We seek and offer ourselves to be gulled. — Mon- 
taigne. 

47. Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between thee and 
me. — Genesis. 

48. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself 
as he that putteth it off. — I. Kings. 

49. I caused the widow's heart to sing for joy. — Job. 

50. He maketh the deep to boil like a pot. — Job. 

51. Let thy words be few. — Ecclesiastes. 

52. Let us crown ourselves with rosebuds before they be 
withered. — Solomon. 

53. Let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous 
man his thoughts. — Isaiah. 

54. Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. — Acts. 

55. Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he 
fall. — I. Corinthians. 



106 A Teachers' Manual 

56. He that hath ears to hear let him hear. 

57. I hold that gentleman to be the best dressed whose 
dress no one observes. — Thackeray. 

58. I take the true definition of exercise to be labor with- 
out weariness. — Dr. Johnson. 

59. The wise man knows himself to be a fool. — Shake- 
speare. 

60. Experience makes us see a wonderful difference be- 
tween devotion and goodness. — Pascal. 

61. A wise man neither suffers himself to be governed, 
nor attempts to govern others. — La Bruyere. 

62. Whatever government is not a government of laws 
is a despotism, let it be called what it may. — Webster. 

63. Never suffer youth to be an excuse for inadequacy, 
nor age and fame to be an excuse for indolence. — Haydon. 

64. If we wish ourselves to be high, we should treat that 
whicn is over us as higher. — Trollope's Thackeray. 

65. The greatest luxury of riches is, that they enable you 
to escape so much good advice. — Sir Arthur Helps. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. Run is an infinitive, the objective comple- 
ment after saw; him is the object complement, and may be 
called the objective subject of run; the sign of the infinitive 
is omitted after saw. 

Sentence 2. Wait is explained after the manner of the 
above sentence. 

Sentence 3. Curl is an infinitive, used as an objective 
complement; the to is omitted after watch, see, and verbs 
of kindred meaning. 

Sentence 4, Hear is an infinitive, the objective comple- 
ment after Let; the subject is understood; to is also under- 
stood after Let; similar to the above constructions, him 
may be called the objective subject of hear. 

Sentence 5. The phrase to be a hero is the objective 
complement after know; hero is an objective attribute 
after be; it cannot be the object of be, but is in the ob- 
jective case because the whole phrase is objectively used, 



English Grammar and Analysis 107 

and because him, the "subject" of to be is in the objective 
case. Since him and hero refer to each other, and since 
they are indeed the same person, the words have the same 
case; hero could no more be in the nominative case than 
could the word him. 

Sentence 6. The same constructions as found in 1, 2, 3, 
4. The infinitive sign to is omitted after bid and its forms. 

Sentence 7. Him is the object complement, and the in- 
finitive look the objective complement; ill is an adjective, 
the attribute complement after look. 

Sentence 8. The same as 6; him is the object of follow. 

Sentence 9. To be is the objective complement; honest 
is adjective, the attribute after be. 

Sentence 10. Vaughn is the object complement and to 
preach the objective; sermon is the object of preach; the 
subordinate clause limits wish; longest is an adverbial 
modifier of has known; because is a subordinate connective. 

Sentence 11. You is the object complement, and to un- 
derstand, the objective; principles is the object of under- 
stand. The second member is joined to the first by and, 
understood; them is the object complement after wish; the 
adjective participle carried is the objective complement; 
out is an adverb limiting carried. 

Sentence 12. The subject of Let is understood; man is 
the object and the infinitive escape the objective comple- 
ment. 

Sentence 13. Same construction as 12. 

Sentence 14. The infinitives win and be are objective 
complements; be is completed by the objective attribute 
day, understood. Day is in the object case, but is not the 
object of be. See Sentence 5, above. 

Sentence 15. The infinitives be and be buried are the 
objective complements; fuss is the object complement in 
the first member; there is independent. 

Sentence 16. Us is the object complement, and the in- 
finitives go and sit the compound objective complement; 
refreshing is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 17. The infinitive have is the objective com- 
plement; place is the object of have. 



108 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 18. Lord is independent by direct address; 
the infinitive depart is the objective complement. 

Sentence 19. The infinitive be is the objective comple- 
ment; comely and costly are the compound attribute after 
be; but connects these attributes; not limits costly. 

Sentence 20. Afore and after are adverbs. The infini- 
tive go is an objective complement. 

Sentence 21. Smith is the object complement; stand, an 
infinitive, the objective; with hammer and thus limit stand. 

Sentence 22. Heavens is the object complement, and 
the infinitive hear the objective; hear is completed by a 
noun clause, the object; of this clause women is the sub- 
ject; Rail is the predicate; tell-tale is a compound adjec- 
tive; anointed is an adjective pronoun, the object of on; 
the limits Lord's. 

Sentence 23. Man is the object complement; be, the ob- 
jective complement; master is an objective case attribute 
after be; Till is a preposition having the adjective pro- 
noun seven as its object; at night limits seven. 

Sentence 24. Hercules is the object complement; do, 
the objective; himself is in apposition with Hercules; 
"what he may" is the object of do. Of this clause he is the 
subject; may [do], the incomplete predicate; what, the 
object. The second member is joined by yet, understood. 

Sentence 25. Stain is an infinitive, the objective comple- 
ment; water-drops is in apposition with weapons; my limits 
man's. 

Sentence 26. The objective complement to feel takes a 
noun clause as an object. Of this clause wretches is the 
subject; feel, the incomplete predicate; what, the object. 

Sentence 27. Angling is the object complement; to be, 
the objective; like is an attribute complement after be; 
[unto] virtue limits like. 

Sentence 28. Consider is an infinitive, the objective com- 
plement. 

Sentence 29. Office is the object complement; the infini- 
tive engage, the objective complement; Me is the object 
complement after engage, and To rock, the objective com- 
plement; reposing is a mere adjective limiting age. 



English Grammar and Analysis 109 

Sentence 30. Me is the object complement; the infini- 
tives live and die are the compound objective complements; 
the participial adjectives Unblemished and unknown are 
the respective attributes after live and die. In the second 
member me is an indirect object of grant. It is not incon- 
sistent to call Unblemished and unknown mere adjectives. 

Sentence 31. Him is the object complement; to be the 
objective; sailor is an attribute after be in the objective 
case. 

Sentence 32. In the first member me is the object com- 
plement; live, the objective complement; the adjective par- 
ticiples unseen and. unknown are the compound attribute 
after live. Un lamented is an adjective participle, the at- 
tribute after the infinitive die; die is an objective comple- 
ment. In the next member "You let me" must be supplied; 
Steal is an infinitive, the objective complement. To the 
last member the words "You let" must be added. Tell is 
an infinitive, the objective complement after let; stone is 
the object complement. The clause "where I lie" is the 
object of Tell; where limits lie. Unseen, unknown and un- 
lamented, may be called mere adjectives. 

Sentence 33. Him is the object complement; the infini- 
tive go, the objective complement; abroad is an adverbial 
modifier of go. In the second member to place limits go; 
"where he is not known" limits place; where is a conjunc- 
tive adverb modifying is known and joining the clause to 
place. 

Sentence 34. Me is the object and to furnish the objec- 
tive complement; you is the object of furnish; with argu- 
ment and intellect limits furnish; too is an adverb limiting 
furnish. 

Sentence 35. You is the object and to come the objective 
complement. The second member is complex; it is the 
subject of the principal clause; at home limits is; the sub- 
ordinate clause limits is; when limits both knock and it. 

Sentence 36. Man is the object and to do the objective 
complement. 

Sentence 37. The second part of the sentence beginning, 
[you] "let us swear," etc., is in apposition with thought; us 



110 A Teachers' Manual 

is an object complement and the infinitive swear the ob- 
jective. 

Sentence 38. Of this simple sentence You, understood, 
is the subject of Let; beeves and kine are the first member 
of the object complement; partake is an infinitive used as 
the objective complement; swan is the second object com- 
plement, and the infinitive Float, the objective complement; 
still is an adjective limiting St. Mary's; double is an ad- 
jective pronoun, an attribute after float; swan and shadow 
are nouns in apposition with double. 

Sentence 39. The infinitives die and fade are objective 
complements; it is the object complement; At length limits 
perceives. 

Sentence 40. You, understood, is the subject; the infini- 
tive try is an objective complement; me is the object com- 
plement; To mind is the object of try; "what I am taught" 
is the object of mind; I is the subject of this noun clause: 
am taught is the incomplete predicate; what is the object 
complement. 

Sentence 41. Gladiator is the object complement; the 
infinitive lie is the objective complement; before me modi- 
fies see; it may modify lie. 

Sentence 42. You, understood, is the subject of let; me 
is the object complement; the infinitives sing and die are 
the objective complements; swan-like is an adverb limiting: 
sing and die; There is an adverb modifying let. 

Sentence 43. The infinitive grow is the objective comple- 
ment; from more limits grow; to more limits grow; more 
is an adjective pronoun. 

Sentence 44. You, understood, is the subject; Poet is the 
object complement, and the infinitive be the objective com- 
plement. In the second member "that all men see" is in 
apposition with it; that is an introductory conjunction; 
through man limits is. 

Sentence 45. Us is the object and the infinitive be the 
objective complement; however is almost independent, but 
slightly modifies be; remembering is an adjective participle 
limiting us; the noun clause "that the misfortunes hardest 
to bear are tnose which never come" is the object of re- 



English Grammar and Analysis 111 

membering; hardest limits misfortunes; to bear limits 
hardest; that is an introductory conjunction. 

Sentence 46. Ourselves is the object complement of seek 
and offer and to be gulled, the objective complement. 

Sentence 47. There is independent; strife is the ob- 
ject and the infinitive the objective complement; between 
thee and me modifies be. "I pray thee" is the principal 
clause; thee is one direct ohject of pray and the remaining 
part of the sentence is the other direct ohject of pray. 

Sentence 48. Him is the ohject and the infinitive boast 
the objective complement; himself is the object of boast; 
him is modified by the adjective clause, "that girdeth on 
his harness"; on is an adverb; harness is the object of 
girdeth; boast is modified by the clause as he [boasteth] ; 
as modifies both verbs; he is modified by "that putteth 
it off." 

Sentence 49. To sing is the objective complement. 

Sentence 50. Deep is the object and to boil the objective 
complement; like is an adverb limiting boil; [unto] pot 
limits like. 

Sentence 51. Few is an attribute after the infinitive be, 
the objective complement. 

Sentence 52. Crown is an infinitive, the objective com- 
plement; the clause "before they be withered" limits 
crown; before modifies crown and be withered. 

Sentence 53. The adjective pronoun wicked and man are 
the object complement; the infinitive forsake is the ob- 
jective complement; a second forsake may be supplied to 
go with man; way is the object of forsake expressed, and 
thoughts the object of forsake understood. 

Sentence 54. Me is the ohject and to be the objective 
complement; Christian is an attribute in the objective case 
after be; Almost limits persuadest. 

Sentence 55. Him is the object complement; the in- 
finitive take the objective complement; "that thinketh he 
standeth" limits him; he standeth is a little noun clause 
the object of thinketh; "lest he fall" limits take; lest is 
equivalent that . . . not; that is the connective part and 
not the modifying part belonging to fall; in other words, 



112 A Teachers' Manual 

lest is a conjunctive adverb joining the clause to take and 
modifying fall only. 

Sentence 56. You, understood, is the subject of the prin- 
cipal clause; him is the object and the infinitive hear the 
objective complement; "that hath ears to hear" limits the 
object complement him; in this clause ears is an object 
complement and to hear an objective; He is independent 
by pleonasm. 

Sentence 57. Gentleman is the object complement and 
to be dressed the objective complement; "whose dress no 
one observes" limits gentleman; whose modifies dress, and 
joins the clause to gentleman. 

Sentence 58. Definition is the object complement and the 
phrase to be labor, the objective complement; labor is an 
attribute after be in the objective case; without weariness 
limits labor. 

Sentence 59. Himself is the object complement and the 
phrase to be fool, the objective; fool is a noun used as an 
objective attribute after be. 

Sentence 60. Us is the object complement, and the in- 
finitive-see, the objective complement; difference is the 
object of see. 

Sentence 61. In the first member of the compound 
predicate suffers takes himself as object complement and 
to be governed as objective complement; to govern is the 
object of attempts; others is the object of govern; neither 
. . . nor are co-ordinate conjunctions joining the verbs. 

Sentence 62. You, understood, is the subject of the sub- 
ordinate clause; it is the object complement; be called, the 
objective complement; "what it may" is an attribute after 
be called; in this clause it is the subject; may [be], the 
incomplete predicate, and what the attribute complement. 
The subordinate clause denotes concession, and limits the 
second is; whatever modifies government; the connective is 
understood. 

Sentence 63. Youth is the object complement in the first 
member of a compound objective expression; to be is the 
objective complement, completed by the objective attribute 
excuse; in the next member age and fame are the object 



English Grammar and Analysis 113 

complements; to be, the objective; excuse is an objective 
attribute after be. 

Sentence 64. Ourselves is the object and to be, com- 
pleted by the attribute high, the objective complement; 
if joins this subordinate clause to should treat; "which is 
over us" limits that; over us modifies is. 

Sentence 65. The clause, "that they enable you to es- 
cape so much good advice" is an attribute complement 
after is; that is an introductory conjunction; you is the 
object of enable, and to escape is the objective complement. 

The Infinitive used as Adjective Modifier 

1. He wants books to read. 

2. The child had a long lesson to learn; to be learned. 

3. He was given an apple to eat. 

4. They were offered the opportunity to go. 

5. They made a plan to catch the culprit. 

6. Gratitude is a lively sense of favours to come. — 
Walpole. 

7. That's a pretty sum to begin the next world. — Erskine. 

8. It was a story to attract much attention. 

9. There's plenty of time to win this game and to thrash 
the enemy too. 

10 What masks are these uniforms to hide cowards! — 
Wellington. 

11. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds 
..lakes deeds ill done. 

12. Ay, springes to catch woodcocks. — 'Shakespeare. 

13. The devil hath power 

To assume a pleasing shape. — Shakespeare. 

14. No hinge nor loop, 

To hang a doubt on. — 'Shakespeare. 

15. Death hath a thousand doors to let out life. — Mas- 
singer. 

16. He made an instrument to know 

If the moon shine at full or no. — Butler. 

17. He had a head to contrive, a tongue to persuade, and 
a hand to execute any mischief. — Clarendon. 



114 A Teachers' Manual 

18. I'll give you leave to call me anything if you don't call 
me a "spade." — Swift. 

19. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, 
To soften rocks or bend a knotted oak. — Congreve. 

20. Losers must have leave to speak. — Cibber. 

21. Our youth we can have but today, 

We may always find time to grow old. — Berkeley. 

22. Freedom has a thousand charms to show, 

That slaves, howe'er contented, never know. — Cowper. 

23. Minds that have nothing to confer 
Find little to perceive. — Wordsworth. 

24. Night is the time to weep, 

To wet with unseen tears 
Those graves of memory where sleep 
The joys of other years. — Montgomery. 

25. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 
In his steep course? — Coleridge. 

26. He is a man not to be cheated a second time. 

27. But since he had 

The genius to be loved, why let him have 
The justice to be honored in his grave. 

— Mrs. Browning. 

28. Something to love He lends us. — Tennyson. 

29. He who did well in war just earns the right 
To begin doing well in peace. — Browning. 

30. I count life just a stuff 

To try the soul's strength on. — Browning. 

31. Nature fits all her children with something to do. — 
Lowell. 

32. I know no method to secure the repeal of bad or ob- 
noxious laws so effectual as their strict construction. — 
Grant. 

33. I do not give you to posterity as a pattern to imitate, 
but as an example to deter. — Junius. 

34. Too great haste to repay an obligation is a kind of in- 
gratitude. — Rochefoucauld. 

35. In every scheme involving human action there are 
three elements to be taken in account — time, place and 
agency. — Wallace. 



English Grammar and Analysis 115 

36 We give advice, but we cannot give the wisdom to 
profit by it. — Dr. Johnson. 

o7. Any attempt to lower a man's reputation in that one 
point where he is ambitious to be distinguished is never 
forgotten or forgiven. — Haydon. 

38. Confidence is a thing not to be produced by compul- 
sion. — Webster. 

39. If there be not a conscience to be used in every 
trade, we shall never prosper. — Shakespeare. 

40. The attempt to make one false impression on the 
mind of a friend respecting ourselves is of the nature of 
perfidy. — Charming. 

41. Genius is lonely without the surrounding presence 
of a people to inspire it. — Higginson. 

42. Government is a contrivance of human wisdom to 
provide for human wants. — Burke. 

43. A man who has nothing to do is the devil's play- 
fellow.— Holland. 

44. The foolish man often laughs when there is nothing 
to laugh at. — 'Goethe. 

45. Learning, to be of much use, must have a tendency 
to spread itself among the common people. — Beecher. 

46. All great poets have their message to deliver us from 
something higher than they. — Lowell. 

47. Liberty must be limited in order to be enjoyed. — 
Burke. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. This sentence is not disposed of in the same 
way if it read, "He wants to read books." In the sentence 
just given, to read is the object of wants, and books the 
object of read. In the original sentence, "He wants books 
to read," it is plain that books is the object of wants; the 
force of to read may be clearly seen by expanding it to a 
clause, "which he may read." Therefore, to read is an ad- 
jective element. 

Sentence 2. To learn, as well as to be learned, modifies 
lesson. The adjective nature of the infinitive is seen by 
expanding the phrase to "which he must learn." One in- 



116 A Teachers' Manual 

finitive — to learn— has the active form, and the other the 
passive; both are passive in meaning. 

Sentence 3. Apple is the direct object of was given; to 
eat limits apple. 

Sentence 4. Opportunity is the direct object of were of- 
fered; to go limits opportunity. 

Sentence 5. To catch limits plan; culprit is the object of 
catch. 

Sentence 6. To come limits favors. 

Sentence 7. To begin limits sum; world is the object of 
begin. 

Sentence 8. To attract limits story. 

Sentence 9. There is independent as an expletive; 
plenty is the subject of the verb is; time is limited by to 
win and to thrash; game is the object of win and enemy, 
the object of thrash; too modifies thrash. 

Sentence 10. Uniforms is the subject; to hide limits 
uniforms; masks is the attribute. 

Sentence 11. Sight is the subject; Makes, the incom- 
plete predicate; deeds, the object complement, and the 
adjective participle done, the objective complement; to do 
limits means; oft limits makes, and How modifies oft. 

Sentence 12. This ellipsis must be completed: "These 
are springes," etc. Ay is independent; it may be called a 
sentence- word. To catch limits springes. 

Sentence 13. To assume limits power; pleasing is a mere 
adjective. 

Sentence 14. To hang limits hinge and loop; on modifies 
hang; doubt is the object of hang. The construction may 
be expanded to "on which to hang a doubt." Here the 
analysis would be somewhat different. In either case, 
the words "There is" must be supplied to introduce the 
sentence. 

Sentence 15. Doors, the object of hath, is modified by 
to let; life is the object of let; out is an adverb limiting 
let. 

Sentence 16. To know limits instrument; the following 
clause has the use of a noun, and is the object of know; 
If is an introductory conjunction; another verb shine must 



English Grammar and Analysis 117 

be supplied; this second one is limited by the adverb no; 
at full limits the first shine; or connects the two verbs. 

Sentence 17. Head, tongue, and hand are the objects of 
had; to contrive limits head; to persuade, tongue; to exe- 
cute, hand; mischief is the common object of the three 
infinitives. 

Sentence 18. You is the indirect object of give; leave, 
the direct; to call limits leave; me is the object comple- 
ment after call, and anything is the objective complement. 
The subordinate clause limits give; do call is the incom- 
plete predicate; me is the object and spade the objective 
complement of do call. 

Sentence 19. To soothe, To soften, [to] bend, all limit 
the object charms; breast, rocks, oak, are the respective 
objects of these infinitives; knotted is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 20. To speak limits the object leave. 

Sentence 21. Youth is the object of can have; today is 
an adverbial noun limiting can have through some prepo- 
sition understood; but is an adjective limiting today. 
Another view makes today an adverb limiting can have; 
this would then make but an adverb. The second member 
is joined to the first by but, understood; to grow limits 
time; old is an adjective attribute complement after grow. 

Sentence 22. To show limits the object charms; the 
clause, "That slaves, howe'er contented, never know," also 
limits charms; "howe'er contented" must be expanded to a 
clause "howe'er contented they are." This clause limits 
know; howe'er is an adverb. Though, understood, is the 
conjunction. The relative That, which joins the clause to 
charms, is the object of know. 

Sentence 2o. To confer limits nothing; to perceive limits 
little; little is an adjective pronoun. 

Sentence 24. To weep limits time; To wet also modifies 
time; with tears limits wet; "where sleeps the joys of 
other years" limits memory; where modifies sleeps, and 
joins the clause to memory.' See p. 24. 

Sentence 25'. To stay limits the object charm; star is 
the object of stay; In course limits stay. 

Sentence 26. To be cheated limits man; time is an ad- 



118 A Teachers' Manual 

verbial noun modifying be cheated through some preposi- 
tion understood. 

Sentence 27. Of the principal clause you, understood, is 
the subject; let, the incomplete predicate; him, the object 
and the infinitive have the objective complement; to be 
honored limits justice, the object of have; why is an inten- 
sive adverb limiting let; it has almost the same meaning as 
indeed. Of the subordinate clause, genius, the object of 
had, is limited by to be loved; since is a subordinate con- 
junction, joining the clause to let; But joins in thought the 
entire sentence to some preceding statement. 

Sentence 28. Us is the indirect object of lends; some- 
thing is the direct; to lose limits something. 

Sentence 29. To begin limits the object right; the noun 
participle doing is the object of begin; well and in peace 
limit doing. 

Sentence 30. Life is the object complement and stuff, 
the objective; To try limits stuff; strength is the object of 
try; on is an adverb limiting try. The latter part of the 
sentence may be expanded to read "on which one is to try 
the soul's strength." In this case on which limits the 
attribute to try; the antecedent of which is stuff. This 
second view, or the demand for expansion, is quite unneces- 
sary. 

Sentence 31. The phrase with something limits fits; to do 
limits something; children is the direct object of fits. 

Sentence 32. To secure modifies method; repeal is the 
object of secure; effectual limits method; so modifies ef- 
fectual. It is unnecessary to expand the phrase "so ef- 
fectual" to "which is so effectual." Of the subordinate 
clause, construction is the subject; would be, understood, 
the predicate; as limits would be, and joins the clause to so. 

Sentence 33. Pattern is an objective complement after 
give; you, the object complement; as is an introductory 
conjunction; to imitate limits pattern. The second mem- 
ber may be expanded to "but I give you as an example to 
deter." This member is disposed of exactly as the first. 
It is not necessary to make this expansion, but it is cer- 
tainly simpler. One may call pattern and example the com- 



English Grammar and Analysis 119 

pound objective complement joined by the adversative but. 
The adverb not, however, should net negative the second 
objective. 

Sentence 34. To repay limits haste; obligation is the 
object of repay. 

Sentence 35. Elements is the subject; are, the predicate; 
In scheme limits are; involving is an adjective participle 
limiting scheme and taking action as an object; time, place, 
and agency are in apposition with elements; there is inde- 
pendent as ah expletive; to be taken limits elements; and 
is to be supplied before place; to be taken is limited by 
in account. The phrase to be taken may be used as the 
attribute after are, although the order of words does not 
justify it. If the phrase is to be used as an attribute at 
all, it really is such after the verb are, understood. This 
is shown in case the construction is expanded to "there are 
three elements which are to be taken into account." 

Sentence 36. To profit limits wisdom. 

Sentence 37. To lower limits attempt; in point modifies 
lower; the clause "where he is ambitious to be dis- 
tinguished" modifies point; where limits is, and joins the 
clause to point. 

Sentence 38. To be produced limits thing, and is modi- 
fied by not and by compulsion. 

Sentence 39. The subordinate clause introduced by If 
modifies shall prosper; to be used limits conscience. 

iSentence 40. To make limits attempt; impression is the 
object of make; on mind and respecting friend limit make; 
respecting is here a preposition. 

Sentence 41. To inspire limits people; without presence 
modifies is; surrounding is a mere adjective. 

Sentence 42. To provide limits contrivance. 

Sentence 43. To do limits nothing; the limits devil's. 

Sentence 44. The subordinate clause, introduced by 
when limits laughs; when modifies laughs and is. Of the 
subordinate clause, nothing is the subject; is is the predi- 
cate; to laugh limits nothing; at modifies laugh. For the 
use of the infinitive, see Sentence 35. 

Sentence 45. To be limits must have; to spread modifies 



120 A Teachers' Manual 

the object tendency; itself is the object of spread; among 
people limits spread. 

Sentence 46. Message, the object of have, is modified by 
to deliver; us is the object of deliver; from something 
limits deliver; than they are [high] modifies the adjective 
higher; than limits high, understood. 

Sentence 47. In order limits must be limited; to be en- 
joyed modifies order. 

The Infinitive as Object of a Preposition 

1. He was about to leave me. 

2. He was willing to do anything but work. 

3. There was nothing to do but to go forward. 

4. They were about to seize him. 

5. My work is done; I have nothing to do but to go to 
my Father. 

6. Now I am about to take my last voyage. 

7. I know it is a sin 
For me to sit and grin 

At him here. — Holmes. 

8. He does nothing but play. 

9. He is about to begin. 

Observations : 

Sentence 1. About to leave me is the attribute comple- 
ment; to leave is the object of about, and me is the object 
of leave. Logically, and not grammatically, about indicates 
the relation between to leave and was, although the phrase 
does not modify was. 

Sentence 2. The attribute adjective willing is limited by 
to do; the phrase but work limits anything; work is an 
infinitive. 

Sentence 3. There is independently used; nothing is the 
subject; to do is the attribute complement; but to go for- 
ward limits nothing; to go is the object of but. 

Sentence 4. About to seize him is the attribute comple- 
ment. 

Sentence 5. To do limits nothing; but to go limits noth- 
ing. 

Sentence 6. Now limits am; about to take, completed by 



English Grammar and Analysis 121 

the object voyage, is the attribute complement; to take is 
the object of about; voyage is the object of take. 

Sentence 7. "For me to sit and grin at him here" is in 
apposition with it; me to sit and [to] grin is the object of 
For. The word me, only, must not be called the object, but 
me as modified by the infinitives. 

Sentence 8. The phrase but play limits nothing; play 
is an infinitive. 

Sentence 9. The prepositional phrase is the attribute 
complement; to begin is the object of about. 

Miscellaneous Uses of the Infinitive as an 
Adverbial Modifier 

1. We part to meet again, I hope, in endless joys. 

2. No one can be more willing to send me out of life than 
I am desirous to go. — Laud. 

3. Posterity is a pack-horse, always ready to be loaded. 
— Disraeli. 

4. Sir, I shall be glad to have a new sense given to me. — 
Dr. Johnson. 

5. Thou hast art indeed able to corrupt a saint. 

6. The blood more stirs 

To rouse a lion than to start a hare! 

7. Do you think I am easier to be played on than a pipe? 

8. Man is one world, and hath 
Another to attend him. — Herbert. 

9. Grinned horrible a ghastly smile, to hear 
His famine should be filled. — Milton. 

10. Truth is as impossible to be soiled by any outward 
touch as the sunbeam. — Milton. 

11. Do you think I was born in a wood to be afraid of an 
owl ?— ■ Swift. 

12. Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise. — Po; e. 

13. Satire's my weapon, but I'm too discreet 
To run amuck, and tilt at all I meet. — Pope. 

14. Though pleased to see the dolphins play, 

I mind my compass and my own way. — Green. 

15. Many things difficult to design prove easy to perform. 
— Dr. Johnson. 



122 A Teachers' Manual 

16. You find people ready enough to do the Samaritan, 
without oil and two-pence. — Smith. 

17. I used to think their slender tops 
Were close against the sky. — Hood. 

18. Will you please go there? 

19. Qh, the little birds sang east, and the little birds 

sang west, 
And I smiled to think God's greatness flowed arDund 

our incompleteness, 
Round our restlessness, His rest. — Mrs. Browning. 

20. I built my soul a lordly pleasure-house 
Wherein at ease for aye to dwell. — Tennyson 

21. The soil out of which such men as he are made is 
good to be born on, good to live on, good to die for and to be 
buried in. — Lowell. 

22. Be swift to hear, slow to speak, slow to wrath. — 
St. James. 

23. Our friends are generally ready to do everything for 
us except the very thing we wish them to do. — Hazlitt. 

24. Every book is good to read which sets the reader in a 
working mood. — Emerson. 

25. Sooner or later the world comes round to see the 
truth and do the right. — Hillard. 

26. We must be patient; but I cannot choose but weep, 
to think they should lay him i' the cold ground. — 'Shake- 
speare. 

27. A perfect historian must possess an imagination suf- 
ficiently powerful to make his narrative affecting and 
picturesque; yet he must control it so absolutely as to con- 
tent himself with the materials which he finds, and to 
refrain from supplying deficiencies, by additions of his own. 
— Macaulay. 

28. An honest man, sir, is able to speak for himself, 
when a knave is not. — Shakespeare. 

29. It is a maxim that no man was ever enslaved by 
influence while he was fit to be free. — Dr. Johnson. 



English Grammar and Analysis 123 

30. Virtue alone is sufficient to make a man great, 
glorious, and happy. 

31. A lie which is part a truth is a harder matter to 
fight. — Tennyson, 

Observations 

Sentence 1. A complex sentence; I is the subject of the 
principal clause, hope, the incomplete predicate. The other 
part of the sentence is the object of hope; to meet limits 
part; in joys and again limit meet. 

Sentence 2. To send modifies the adjective attribute 
complement willing; me is the object of send; out of is a 
phrase preposition with life as an object; the expression 
limits sends. Of the subordinate clause I is the subject; 
desirous, the attribute complement; to go limits desirous; 
than modifies desirous and joins the clause to more, a 
modifier of willing. 

Sentence 3. Ready limits pack-horse; always and to be 
loaded modify ready. 

Sentence 4. Sir is independent by direct address; to 
have limits the attribute glad; sense is an object comple- 
ment of have, and the adjective participle given is the objec- 
tive complement; to me limits given. 

Sentence 5. Able limits art; to corrupt modifies able; 
indeed is almost independent, yet it mildly modifies hast; 
saint is the object of corrupt. 

Sentence 6. To rouse limits stirs; lion is the object of 
rouse; to start is the subject of some verb understood, say, 
stirs; hare is the object of start; more limits stirs; than 
limits stirs, understood, and joins the clause to more. 

Sentence 7. You is the subject of the principal clause; 
Do think is the incomplete predicate; "I am easier to be 
played on than a pipe" is the object. I is the subject of 
this noun clause; to be played limits the attribute easier; 
easier is modified by the adverbial clause of degree "than 
a pipe is easy;" than limits easy, understood, and joins the 
clause to easier. 

Sentence 8. Another is the object of hath; whenever have 



124 A Teachers' Manual 

or any of its forms denote possession, the verb is transi- 
tive; to attend limits Another. 

Sentence 9. The subject of Grinned is understood; hor- 
rible is an adverb limiting Grinned; to hear modifies 
Grinned. 

Sentence 10. To be soiled limits the attribute impos- 
sible; as also limits the attribute; by touch modifies be 
soiled; sunbeam is the subject of the subordinate clause 
verb, is, understood; as limits is, and joins the clause to 
the first as. 

.Sentence 11. The subordinate clause has the construc- 
tion of a noun, and is the object of Do think; you is the 
subject of the subordinate clause; was born, the predicate; 
to be limits was born; afraid is an attribute after be. 

Sentence 12. In the second member to light limits rise; 
me is the object of light. 

Sentence 13. In the second member To run and [to] tilt 
limit the attribute discreet; at all limits tilt; [that] I meet 
modifies the adjective pronoun all; the relative that, under- 
stood, is the object of meet, and joins the clause to all. 

Sentence 14. The subordinate clause may be expended 
to "Though I am pleased to see the dolphins play." It 
limits mind; Though is a subordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 15. Difficult limits things; to design modifies 
difficult; prove is the incomplete predicate; easy is the 
attribute complement; to perform limits easy. 

Sentence 16. People is the object and ready the objec- 
tive complement; to do limits enough, which modifies 
ready; act, understood, is the object of do; Samaritan limits 
act, as does the; without oil and two-pence limits do. 

Sentence 17. To think modifies used; close is an at- 
tribute after were. 

Sentence 18. Will please is the predicate, and is modi- 
fied by [to] go. 

Sentence 19. Oh is independent; to think limits smiled; 
rest is in apposition with restlessness; around incomplete- 
ness and Round restlessness limits flowed. 

Sentence 20. To dwell limits build; soul is an indirect 
object of built; Wherein, at ease, and for aye limit dwell. 



English Grammar and Analysis 125 

Sentence 21. To be born, to live, to die, and to be buried 
limit the adjective good, which precedes the respective 
infinitive; on, for, and in are adverbs. The words "out of 
which such men as he are made" constitute an adjective 
clause limiting soil; man is the subject, are made, the 
predicate; which is the object of the phrase preposition out 
of; this phrase limits are made; the antecedent of which 
is soil. As he [is] is a subordinate clause limiting men; as 
is a relative pronoun, the attribute complement after is, 
understood; its antecedent is men. 

Sentence 22. To hear limits swift; to speak modifies 
slow. 

Sentence 23. Generally limits ready; to do modifies 
ready; everything is the object of do; for us limits do; 
except thing limits everything; [that] "we wish them to 
do" limits thing; them is the object complement and to do 
the objective of wish; that, understood, is the object of the 
infinitive do; it joins the clause to its antecedent thing. 

Sentence 24. To read limits good; in mood modifies sets; 
reader is the object of sets. 

Sentence 25. To see and [to] do limit comes; truth and 
right are the respective objects of see and do; sooner, later, 
and round limit comes. 

Sentence 26. Weep is an infinitive, the object of the 
preposition but; to think limits weep; the clause following 
think is a noun clause used as an object. 

Sentence 27. Powerful limits imagination; to make modi- 
fies powerful; narrative is the object of make, and the 
adjectives affecting and picturesque, the objective comple- 
ments after make. The second member is complex; abso- 
lutely limits control; so limits absolutely; the remaining 
words beginning "as to content himself," etc., constitute an 
adverbial clause of degree, which limits so; to content and 
to refrain are the subject of would indicate, understood; as 
limits this verb, and joins the clause to so; himself is the 
object of content; with materials limits content; "which he 
finds" limits materials; which is the object of finds, and has 
materials for its antecedent; supplying is a noun participle 



126 A Teachers' Manual 

the object of from; deficiencies is the object of supplying; 
by additions limits supplying. 

Sentence 28. Sir is independent by direct address; to 
speak limits able; "when a knave is not" [able] limits is; 
when limits the verbs of both clauses — is and is; not in the 
subordinate clause, modifies is. 

Sentence 29. The words beginning "that no man," etc., 
are in apposition with It; that is an introductory conjunc- 
tion; man is the subject of the noun clause; was enslaved, 
the predicate; "while he was fit to be free" limits was en- 
slaved; while itself modifies was enslaved and was; to be 
limits the attribute fit; free is an attribute after be. 

Sentence 30. To make limits the attribute sufficient; 
man is the object of make; great, glorious, and happy are 
the objective complements of make. 

Sentence 31. To fight limits matter; part a may be used 
together as one adjective, or they may be parsed as sepa- 
rate adjectives limiting truth. 



CHAPTER II 



The Participle 



A Participle is a word derived from a verb; it partakes 
of the properties of a verb and an adjective or of a verb 
and a noun. The verbal nature is never absent. Often the 
verbal function will disappear entirely; then the word 
becomes a mere adjective or a noun. 

For purposes of clearness and simplicity the terms noun 
participle and adjective participle are used in this manual 
to designate the different participles. A word ending in 
-ing and having lost its verbal force is treated as a mere 
noun. A gerund is nothing more than a noun participle. 
Many grammars use the term infinitive in -ing instead of 
gerund. Either term has the same meaning as noun par- 
ticiple. The term verbal noun may be applied either to an 
infinitive filling the office of a noun or to a noun participle; 
likewise a verbal adjective is an infinitive used as an 
adjective, or it is an adjective participle. The sentences 
discussed below will serve to show the distinctions already 
indicated. 

In "Walking is good exercise," the word walking is a 
mere noun — not a gerund nor a participial noun, but simply 
a noun. The word is only a name; a noun is a name 
whether the word names an object or an action. There 
is nothing to indicate in any sense the idea of action in 
the subject. The sentence is not the equivalent of "To 
walk is good exercise." In the latter case the infinitive 
expresses action, whereas in the former, the subject merely 
names it. 

In this sentence, "Seeing is believing," the meaning is 
plainly "To see is to believe." Both subject and attribute 
are participles; one process of action is the same as the 
other process. The sentence does not wish merely to name 
the action. Hence, it is apparent that no rule can be given 
relative to words ending in -ing. Sometimes they are partici- 
ples, and sometimes they are not. 

127 



128 A Teachers' Manual 

The modern -ing form can come from three Anglo-Saxon 
forms: (a) from abstract nouns of action ending in -ung; 
(b) from the present participle ending in -ende; (c) from 
the dative case of the infinitive ending in -anne or -enne. 
Examples: (a) acsung— asking; learnung— learning; (b) 
singende — singing; haebbende = having; (c) habbanne, 
(-enne, -onne)— to have, for having; ganne = to go, for 
going.* 

The Distinction between the Participle and the 
Mere Noun or the Mere Adjective 

In "His singing delighted us," singing is a mere noun. 
Let the adverb artistically be placed after singing, and 
the latter becomes a participle; the adverbial modifier 
shows this. In "His walking so rapidly put him out of 
breath," walking is plainly a participle; the adverb rapidly 
proves the verbal nature of walking. In "His singing the 
song pleased us," singing takes an object; this shows the 
verbal nature of singing. 

In each of the five sentences following, the word in bold 
type is a mere noun. 

1. 'ihe bird's singing charmed us. 

2. Running is violent exercise. 

3. His suffering was very keen. 

4. My going will depend upon several things. 

5. He succeeded through his writing. 

In the sentences given below words ending in -ing are 
plainly participles. In each case there is either an object 
after the word in question or an adverbial modifier of it. 

1. His running so rapidly injured him. 

2. My going there will be conditioned by several things. 

3. He suceeded through his writing the letter so clearly. 

It sometimes happens, as was shown in "Seeing is believ- 
ing," that the modifier test is not sufficient to prove or 
disprove the verbal nature of a word. In this sentence the 



* See Professor Reed Smith's article entitled "Participle 
and Infinitive in -ing" in the University of South Carolina 
Bulletin, October, 1911. 



English Grammar and Analysis 129 

meaning is sufficiently clear to show the participle force. 
Its being equivalent to an infinitive is not a satisfactory 
explanation. The meaning is the final deciding factor. 

The adjective participle is determined in a manner some- 
what similar. In "The running stream is shallow," running 
is a mere adjective. There is no thought of calling attention 
to the action; the adjunct merely describes. In "The 
stream, running with a swift current, swept all before it," 
it is evident that running is an adjective participle. Atten- 
tion is drawn to the fact of the running. The verbal 
nature of the word is seen in "The man, running, was soon 
breathless." The participle is an abridged verb. The 
meaning is, "The man, who was running, was breathless." 
The verbal nature of running is apparent. Whenever the 
word terminating in -ing is an abridged verb, or when it 
has modifiers establishing a verbal nature, the term should 
be taken as a participle. 

In the sentences given below the words ending in -ing, -en, 
and -ed, are mere adjectives. This is evident because the 
words under consideration have nothing about them to in- 
dicate a verbal nature. 

1. He is an interesting character. 

2. The running stream gradually wore away the bank. 

3. The wagon is broken. 

4. The house is painted. 

5. It was said with a sweeping gesture. 

6. He made a well-directed statement. 

The force of each one of the bold-faced words is merely 
descriptive. In (3) and (4) broken and painted are adjec- 
tives used as attribute complements. In (2) running is only 
a descriptive word; its grammatical equivalent is wholly 
adjectival. 

The Participle used as the Subject of a Sentence 

1. Gambling with cards, or dice, or stocks, is all one 
thing, — it is getting money without giving an equivalent 
for it. — Beecher. 

2. Getting money is not all a man's business; to cultivate 
kindness is a valuable part of the business of life. — Johnson. 



130 A Teachers' Manual 

3. His going there late led to a difficulty with the em- 
ployer. 

4. Working hard every day was his main hope. 

5. Being in a ship is being in jail, with the chance of 
being drowned. — Johnson. 

6. Its being he made no difference. 

7. His being a soldier saved him from distress. 

8. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

9. And there was mounting in hot haste, the steed, 

r lhe mustering squadron, and the clattering car, 
Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, 
And swiftly forming in the ranks of war. — Byron. 

Observations 

This construction is not very common. The infinitive is 
used as subject with much more frequency than the par- 
ticiple. There is something a trifle stilted in the structure. 
The sentence containing this use does not seem organic or 
idiomatic. 

Sentence 1. The noun participle Gambling is the subject 
of the first member; is, the incomplete predicate; thing, the 
attribute; all has the force of an adverb limiting one; with 
is a preposition having the compound objects cards, dice, 
stocks; the phrase limits Gambling; these noun are con- 
nected by or. In the second member it is the subject; is, 
the incomplete predicate; getting, a noun participle, the 
attribute complement; money is the object of getting; with- 
out giving limits getting; giving is a noun participle having 
equivalent for its object; for it limits giving. The connec- 
tive joining the members is understood. 

Sentence 2. Getting is a noun participle, the subject of 
the first member; money is the object of getting; all is an 
adjective pronoun, used as attribute complement; of busi- 
ness modifies all, of being understood; a limits man's, and 
man's limits business. The infinitive to cultivate is the sub- 
ject of the second member; kindness is the object of culti- 
vate; the connective joining the member should be supplied. 

Sentence 3. Going, a noun participle, is the subject; His, 
there, late, limit going; with employer modifies difficulty. 



English Grammar and Analysis 131 

Sentence 4. The noun participle working is limited by 
hard, and the adverbial noun day through some preposition 
understood. 

Sentence 5. The noun participle Being is the subject of 
the sentence; it is limited by in ship; the attribute comple- 
ment being is a noun participle, modified by in jail and 
with chance; chance is limited by of being drowned; the 
latter two words are a noun participle, the object of of. 

Sentence 6. Being, a noun participle, is the subject; he 
is an attribute after being; Its limits being. If being were 
an object of some preposition or verb, he would be written 
him, thus: "There is no doubt of its being him." In the 
original sentence the participial phrase is used nomina- 
tively; hence the nominative case form he. 

Sentence 7. The noun participle being is the subject; 
soldier is a nominative case attribute after being; His 
limits being; from distress modifies saved. If the sentence 
read, "He was saved from being a soldier." soldier would 
then be treated as an objective case attribute after being, 
inasmuch as the entire expression is used in an object con- 
struction. 

Sentence S. Hurrying is a noun participle used as the 
subject; Ah is independent; was is the predicate; then and 
there limit was; to and fro modify hurrying. 

Sentence 9. The noun participle mounting is the subject. 
of the first member; there is independent; was is the predi- 
cate; And joins the lines in thought to something gone 
before. In the second member steed, squadron, and car 
are the compound subject; went, the incomplete predicate; 
pouring and forming are adjective participles used as at- 
tribute complements; mustering and clattering are mere 
adjectives; forward and with speed limit pouring; swiftly 
and in ranks modify forming. The connective joining the 
members is understood. 

The Participle used as Object of a Verb 

1 He practiced telling the truth on all occasions. 

2. They tried studying in the open air. 

3. They could not prevent his going away. 



132 A Teachers' Manual 

4. Uncas attempted running the gantlet, and finally suc- 
ceeded in reaching the totem. 

5. xiie blue-jackets practiced aiming the big guns at a 
sham target. 

6. The students thought remembering lectures acquiring 
an education. 

7. I do not possess the kind of intelligence; I want guid- 
ing. 

Observations 

Although this construction is of no frequent occurrence 
in literature, there is good authority for it. In each of the 
above sentences the word in bold face is a noun participle, 
used as the object of a verb. 

Sentence 1. Truth is the object of telling; on occasions 
limits telling. 

Sentence 2. In air limits the object studying. 

Sentence 3. His and away modify going; the former 
indicates a nounal nature for going, the latter a verbal 
nature. 

Sentence 4. Gantlet is the object of the participle run- 
ning; in reaching limits succeeded; reaching is a noun par- 
ticiple. 

Sentence 5. Guns is the object of aiming, a noun partici- 
ple; at target limits aiming. 

Sentence 6. Remembering is a noun participle, the 
object of thought; acquiring is a noun participle, the objec- 
tive complement of thought; lectures is the object of re- 
membering; education is the object of acquiring. 

Sentence 7. In the second member of this compound 
sentence, guiding, a noun participle, is the object of want. 

The Participle used as Attribute Complement, 
Adjective Construction 

1. The wind came rushing. 

2. They ran shouting. 

3. They sat quietly thinking of many things. 

4. The city lies sleeping. 

5. He fell wounded by his adversaries. 



English Grammar and Analysis 133 

6. They stood frightened by the rushing waters. 

7 He kept on working. 

8. The rain continued falling two days and nights. 

9. He rode looking out of the rear window. 

10. It is a maxim in all philosophy, that causes which do 
not appear are to be considered as not existing. — Hume. 

11. A beloved friend does not fill one part of the soul, 
but, penetrating the whole, becomes connected with all 
feeling. — Channing. 

12. He that lives upon hopes will die fasting. — Franklin. 

13. The time is probably not far distant when music will 
stand revealed perchance as the mightiest of the arts. — 
Haweis. 

14. A rushing, roaring sound was heard moaning along 
the ocean. — Cooper. 

15. Love sought is good, but given unsought is better. — 
S-hakespeare. 

16. Abash'd the devil stood, 

And felt how awful goodness is. — Milton. 

17. The fiend * * * fled 

Murmuring, and with him the shades of night. 

— Milton. 

18. Sometimes let gorgeous Tragedy 

In sceptered pall come sweeping by, 
Presenting Thebes, on Pelops' line, 
Or the tale of Troy divine. — 'Milton. 

19. He trudged along unthinking what he sought. — 
Dryden. 

20. And truths divine came mended from that tongue. — 
Pope. 

21. Unwept, unhonored, uninterred, he dies. — Pope. 

22. Thy fatal shafts unerring move, 

I bow before thy altar, Love! — Smollett. 

23. 'Tis the last rose of summer 
Left blooming alone. — Moore. 

24. He rushed into the field, and foremost fighting fell. — 
Byron. 



134 A Teachers' Manual 

25. Let us, then, be up and going 

With a heart for any fate; 
Still achieving, still pursuing, 

Learn to labor and to wait. — Longfellow. 

26. The stranger kept hanging about just inside the inn 
door. — Stevenson. 

27. He remained, therefore, in his seat near the window, 
reading and writing, and expressing in as many pleasant 
and natural ways as he could think of, that it was a free 
place. — Dickens. 

Observations 

This construction is very common. The force of the 
participle seems, at times, almost adverbial, yet in each 
case the participle refers almost directly to the subject. 
In sentence 1, for instance, rushing completes the predi- 
cate; the complete assertion about the wind is not that it 
came, but that in addition it rushed. In fact, the verb 
might be omitted, and the sentence changed to "The wind 
rushed," so close does the participle stand in meaning to the 
subject. Since these words in question complete the predi- 
cate and refer to the subject, they are taken as attributes. 
If rushing were called an adverb, it would not refer to the 
subject. 

In the first nine sentences, the bold face words are adjec- 
tive participles used as attribute complements. In sen- 
tence 6, rushing is a mere adjective; in 7, on is an adverb 
limiting kept; in 8, days and nights are adverbial nouns, 
the object of some preposition understood, the phrase limit- 
ing falling in 9, out of are taken as one word — a phrase 
preposition. 

Sentence 10. A complex-complex sentence; "that causes 
which do not appear are to be considered as not existing,' 
is a complex noun clause in apposition with It, subject of 
the principal clause. Of the principal part of this noun 
ciause, causes is the subject; are, the incomplete predicate; 
to be considered, the attribute complement; existing, an 
adjective participle, is still an attribute after to be con- 
sidered; as is a subordinate introductory conjunction intro- 



English Grammar and Analysis 135 

ducing existing; not limits existing. The clause, "which do 
not appear," limits causes, the antecedent of which; that 
is an introductory conjunction. 

Sentence 11. Does fill and becomes are the compound 
incomplete predicate; but connects them; penetrating is an 
adjective participle modifying friend; connected is an adjec- 
tive participle, the attribute complement of becomes. 

Sentence 12. Fasting is an adjective participle, the at- 
tribute complement after will die. 

Sentence 13. A complex sentence; probably limits is; far 
modifies the attribute distant; not limits is. The subordi- 
nate clause is adjectival, limiting time; revealed is an 
adjective participle, the attribute after will stand; per- 
chance limits revealed; mightiest is an adjective pronoun, 
the attribute complement of revealed; as is an introductory 
conjunction introducing mightiest; the and of arts limit 
mightiest; when modifies will stand, and joins the clause to 
time. 

Sentence 14. Rushing and roaring are mere adjectives 
limiting sound; moaning is an adjective participle, the at- 
tribute complement of was heard. 

Sentence 15. Perhaps the simplest treatment of this 
sentence is to expand it to a compound sentence by supply- 
ing love in the second member. Sought is an adjective 
participle limiting Love; given is an adjective participle 
limiting love, understood; unsought is an adjective partici- 
ple, the attribute complement of given. 

Sentence 16. A complex sentence; stood and felt are the 
compound incomplete predicates of devil; Abashed is an 
adjective participle, the attribute complement of stood; 
"how awful goodness is" is a noun clause, the object of 
felt; awful is the attribute of is; how limits awful. 

Sentence 17. Murmuring is an adjective participle, the 
attribute complement after fled; in the second member 
fled is supplied as the predicate of shades; with him limits 
fled ; a compound sentence. 

Sentence 18. You, understood, is the subject of let; 
Tragedy is the object complement; the infinitive [to] 
come, the objective complement; the adjective participles 



136 A Teachers' Manual 

sweeping and Presenting are used as attributes after the 
infinitive come; and, understood, connects the participles; 
Thebes, line, and tales are the object of Presenting; In pall 
and by limit sweeping; sceptered is a mere adjective limit- 
ing pall; divine is an appositional adjective modifying Troy. 

Sentence 19. Unknowing is an adjective participle, the 
attribute complement after trudged; "what he sought" is a 
noun clause, the object of unknowing; what is the object of 
sought. 

Sentence 20. And joins this sentence with the thought 
of the preceding context. The use of and in such a position 
as the beginning of a sentence is rapidly disappearing. The 
predicate came is completed hy the attribute complement 
mended, an adjective participle; from tongue modifies 
came. 

Sentence 21. Unwept, unhonored, uninterred are adjec- 
tive participles, the attributes after lies. 

Sentence 22. Unerring is an adjective participle, the at- 
tribute complement after move; in the second member, 
Love is independent by direct address. 

Sentence 23. It is the subject, 'Tis being expanded to It 
is; Left is an adjective participle limiting rose; blooming 
■is an adjective participle, the attribute after Left. 

Sentence 24. Rushed and fell are the compound incom- 
plete predicate; fighting is an adjective participle, the at- 
tribute complement after fell; foremost modifies fighting. 

Sentence 25. You, understood, is the subject of Let; us 
the object complement; the infinitive be, the objective com- 
plement; up is an adjective, the attribute after be; doing is 
an adjective participle", the attribute after be; With heart 
limits be; then is independent as an expletive. You let us 
are understood in the second member of this compound 
sentence; You is the subject; us, the object; the infinitive 
Learn, the objective complement; to labor and to wait are 
the compound object of the infinitive Learn; the adjective 
participles achieving and pursuing limit us, understood; the 
participles are respectively limited by the adverbs Still and 
still. 

Sentence 26. Kept is the incomplete predicate; the ad- 



English Grammar and Analysis 13/ 

jective participle hanging is the attribute complement; 
about and the phrase inside door limit hanging; just modi- 
fies the preposition inside; the and inn limit door. 

Sentence 27. Reading, writing, and expressing are ad- 
jective participles used as the attribute complement after 
remained; "that it was a free place" is a noun clause used 
as the common object of these three participles; therefore, 
in seat, and near limit remained; near is limited by to 
window, to being understood; near may be called a preposi- 
tion with window as its object; in ways limits expressing; 
many limits pleasant and natural; as modifies many; the 
clause, "as he could think of" is adjectival, limiting ways; 
as is here a relative pronoun, the object of of; the phrase 
of as limits could think; ways is the antecedent of as. The 
sentence is complex. The grammatical use of the par- 
ticiples is seen if the sentence is shortened to, "He re- 
mained reading." In this construction reading is a par- 
ticiple attribute after remained. 

The Participle used as an Adjective Element 

1. Dramatic genius, annihilating the limitation of time 
and space, frames the seasons of its own harvest. — Goodwin. 

2. Seeing the approaching storm, they made haste. 

3. Art is positive, claiming a substantive majesty, and 
beggaring all adjectives to set forth its praise. — James. 

4. Over the doors of every school of art I would have 
this one word, relieved out in deep letters of pure gold — 
Moderation. — Ruskin. 

5. The tints of autumn — a mighty flower-garden blos- 
soming under the spell of the enchanter, Frost. — Whittier. 

6. I have got my spindle and my distaff ready, — my pen 
and mind, — never doubting for an instant that God will 
send me flax. — Holland. 

7. A great book sails the ocean, driven by the winds of 
heaven, breaking the level sea of life into beauty where it 
goes, leaving behind it a train of sparkling loveliness, wid- 
ening as me ship goes on. — Parker. 

8. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of 
celestial fire called Conscience. — Washington. 



138 A Teachers' Manual 

9. Courage, considered in itself or without reference to 
its causes, is no virtue, and deserves no esteem. — Chan- 
ning. 

10. Doubtless criticism was originally benignant, pointing 
out the beauties of a work, rather than its defects. — Long- 
fellow. 

11. A nation, as an individual, has duties to fulfil ap- 
pointed by God and his moral law. — Disraeli. 

12. There is no evil that we cannot either face or fly 
from, but the consciousness of duty disregarded. — Webster. 

13. Faith is thought become poetry, and absorbing into 
itself the soul's great passion. — Parkhurst. 

14. Friendship is a calm and sedate affection, conducted 
by reason and cemented by habit. — Hume. 

15. History is constantly repeating itself, making only 
such changes of program as the growth of nations and 
centuries requires. — Garfield. 

16. People, crushed by law, have no hopes but from 
power. — Burke. 

17. Home should be an oratorio of the memory, singing 
to all our after life melodies and harmonies of old-remem- 
bered joy. — Beecher. 

18. Music is nothing else but wild sounds civilized into 
time and tune. — Fuller. 

19. Business dispatched is business well done, but busi- 
ness hurried is business ill done. — Bulwer-Lylton. 

20. The Spirit of God works everywhere alike, where 
there is no eye to see, covering all lonely places with an 
equal glory, using the same pencil and outpouring the same 
splendor. — Ruskin. 

21. Inconsistencies of opinion, arising from changes of 
circumstances, are often justifiable. — Webster. 

22. Let it be a truth engraven on our hearts. 

23. A peace too eagerly sought is not always the sooner 
obtained. — Burke. 

24. Sympathy is two hearts tugging at one load. — Park- 
hurst. 

25. Moderation is the silken string running through the 
pearl chain of all virtues. — Hall. 



English Grammar and Analysis . 139 

26. A good book is the precious life-blood of a master- 
spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life be- 
yond life. — Milton. 

27. Thoughts shut up want air, 

And spoil, like bales unopened to the sun. — Young. 

28. The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art, 
Reigns more or less, and glows in every heart. 

— Young. 

29. True wit is Nature to advantage dressed. — Pope. 

30. Sentiment is intellectualized emotion, — emotion pre- 
cipitated, as it were, in pretty crystals by the fancy. — 
Lowell. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. Annihilating is an adjective participle, tak- 
ing limitation for its object; of harvest modifies frames. 

Sentence 2. Seeing limits they; storm is the object of 
Seeing. 

Sentence 3. Claiming and beggaring are adjective par- 
ticiples limiting Art; majesty is the object of claiming; ad- 
jectives is the object of beggaring; to set modifies beggar- 
ing; praise is the object set; forth limits set. 

Sentence 4. Over doors modifies would have; relieved is 
an adjective participle used as an objective complement; 
out and in letters limit relieved; Moderation is in apposi- 
tion. 

Sentence 5. The ellipsis can be expanded, such as, "Be- 
hold the tints," etc.; blossoming is an adjective participle. 

Sentence 6. Pen and mind are in apposition with the 
objects spindle and distaff; ready is an adjective, the ob- 
jective complement after have got; the adjective particple 
doubting limits I; the noun clause, "that God will send me 
flax," is the object of doubting. 

Sentence 7. Driven, breaking, and leaving are three ad- 
jective participles limiting book; where it goes limits 
breaking; where modifies breaking and goes; widening 
limits train; "as the ship goes on" limits widening; as 
modifies widening and goes. 

Sentence 8. You, understood, is the subject; Labor is 



140 A Teachers' Manual 

modified by to keep; spark is the object of keep, and alive 
is the objective complement after keep; called is an adjec- 
tive participle limiting fire; Conscience is an attribute after 
called. 

Sentence 9. Considered is an adjective participle limit- 
ing Courage. 

Sentence 10. Pointing is an adjective participle limiting 
criticism; rather modifies printing; than limits pointed, 
understood, the predicate of it, understood, and joins the 
clause to rather; defects is the object of pointed. 

Sentence 11. To fulfil limits the object duties; appointed, 
an adjective participle, modifies duties; as an individual 
is an adverbial clause of manner limiting has; the verb 
must foe supplied in the subordinate clause. Another view, 
equally good, makes as, with the force of as well as, a co- 
ordinate conjunction joining the members of a compound 
subject; the verb is then singular because the subjects are 
taken separately for emphasis. 

Sentence 12. But consciousness limits the subject evil; 
There is an expletive; "that we cannot either face or fly 
from" limits evil; the relative that is the object of can 
face and is supplied as the object of from; either ... or 
connect can face and [can] fly; disregarded is an adjective 
participle limiting duty. 

Sentence 13. Become and absorbing are adjective par- 
ticiples modifying thought; poetry is an attribute comple- 
ment after become; passion is the object of absorbing. 

Sentence 14. Conducted and cemented are adjective 
participles modifying affection. 

Sentence 15. Making is an adjective participle limiting 
History; "as the growth of nations and centuries requires" 
limits making; as modifies making and requires; growth 
is the subject of requires. 

Sentence 16. Crushed is an adjective participle limiting 
People; the prepositional phrase from power is the object 
of the preposition but; but from power limits hopes. 

Sentence 17. Singing is an adjective participle limiting 
oratorio; melodies and harmonies are the object of sing- 
ing; old-remembered is a mere adjective modifier of joy. 



English Grammar and Analysis 141 

Sentence 18. Civilized is an adjective participle limiting 
sounds; else and but sounds limit nothing. 

Sentence 19. Dispatched, an adjective participle, limits 
the subject Business; done is participial modifier of the 
attribute business; in the second member hurried and 
done are adjective participles modifying the subject and 
the attribute respectively. 

Sentence 20. Covering, using, and outpouring are three 
adjective participles limiting Spirit; places, pencil, splen- 
dor, are their respective objects; where there is no eye 
limits works. Of this clause eye is the subject; is, the 
predicate; to see limits eye; there is independent as an ex- 
pletive; where modifies works and is. 

Sentence 21. Arising is an adjective participle limiting 
Inconsistencies; often modifies are. 

Sentence 22. You, understood, is the subject; Let, the 
incomplete predicate; it, the object complement; the infini- 
tive be, the objective complement; truth is an attribute in 
the objective case after be; it cannot be the object of be, 
but can be an objective attribute after it inasmuch as it Is 
related to the object it; engraven is an adjective participle 
modifying truth. 

Sentence 23. Sought is an adjective participle modifying 
peace; eagerly limits sought; too limits eagerly; is ob- 
tained is the predicate; not, always, sooner, each limits is 
obtained; the* is here an adverb of degree modifying sooner. 

Sentence 24. Tugging is an adjective participle limiting 
hearts. 

Sentence 25. Running is an adjective participle modi- 
fying string. 

Sentence 26. Embalmed and treasured are adjective 
participles limiting life-blood; beyond life modifies life. 

Sentence 27. Shut is an adjective participle limiting 
Thoughts; like is an adverb limiting spoil; unto bales 
limits like, unto being supplied; unopened is an adjective 
participle modifying bales. 

Sentence 28. Concealed is an adjective participle limit- 
ing love; howe'er modifies concealed. 



142 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 29. Dressed is an adjective participle limiting 
Nature; to advantage limits dressed. 

Sentence 30. Precipitated is an adjective participle lim- 
iting the second word emotion; inteilectualized is a mere 
adjective modifying the attribute complement emotion; the 
second emotion is repeated for emphasis, and is accord- 
ingly independent by pleonasm; in crystals and by fancy 
limit precipitated. The clause as it were is independent, 
sustaining no grammatical connection with the rest of the 
sentence; as is a conjunction introducing the clause. 

The Participle used in Independent Phrases 

1. Strictly speaking, he is not honest. 

2. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

3. The hour concealed, and so remote the fear, 
Death still draws nearer, never seeming near. 

4. No accident occurring, we shall arrive tomorrow. R. 
& K. 

5. She being down, I have the placing of the British 
Crown. 

6. These injuries having been comforted externally, Mr. 
Pecksniff having been comforted internally, they sat down. 

7. Shame, thou looking on, would utmost vigor raise. 

8. Six frozen winters spent, 

Return with welcome home from banishment. 

9. Hope lost, all is lost. — R. & K. 

10. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our 
affairs. R. & K. 

11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 
R. & K. 

12. The general having been captured, the army was 
defeated. Harvey. 

13. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell 
into the river. R. & K. 

14. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping be- 
fore him and his glaring eye taking the measure of the 
blow, sitrike wide of the mortal part? 

15. Conversation stock being a joint and common prop- 
erty, every one should take a share in it. — H. Smith. 



English Grammar and Analysis 143 

16. friendship, although, strictly speaking, it is not a 
virtue, is, nevertheless, closely connected with virtue. — 
R. W. Browne. 

17. Now night descending, the proud scene was o'er. — 
Pope. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. Speaking is a participle used independently, 
and is modified by Strictly. This participle may be con- 
ceived as being either of a nounal nature or of an adjec- 
tival. . It is impossible to determine this, since the form 
of the word offers no aid. It might also be added that it is 
not at all important which nature is ascribed to the word. 

Sentence 2. # "Conscience lies wounded" is the main part 
of the sentence; wounded is an adjective particple attribute 
after lies. The phrase "her first law broken" is independ- 
ent; law is the basis; it is modified by her, first, and bro- 
ken; broken is an adjective participle. 

Sentence 3. Of this sentence, Death is the subject; 
draws, the predicate; still and nearer limit draws; seeming 
is an adjective particple limiting Death; seeming is modi- 
fied by never, and is completed by the adjective attribute 
near. The phrases, "The hour concealed, and so remote 
the fear" are independent. The bases of the compound 
phrase are hour and fear; hour is modified by the adjective 
participle concealed and by The; fear is limited by re- 
mote; remote, by so. 

Sentence 4. "No accident occurring" is independent; 
accident is modified by No and the adjective participle oc- 
curring. In the main part of the sentence, we is the sub- 
ject; shall arrive, the predicate; tomorrow may be called 
either an adverb or an adverbial noun. If the latter, it is 
the object of a preposition understood, the phrase limiting 
shall arrive. 

Sentence 5. Placing is a mere noun, the object of the 
verb have; "She being down" is independent. The basis 
She is limited by the participle being; down modifies being. 
Down also may be called an idiomatic adjective, the attri- 
bute after being. 



144 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 6. Of this sentence they is the subject; sat, 
the predicate; down, an adverb. The participle having 
been comforted limits the independent word injuries; the 
second participle having been comforted limits Mr. Peck- 
sniff, another independent word. The independent terms 
injuries and Mr. Pecksniff are connected by and, under- 
stood. 

Sentence 7. Shame is the subject; would raise, the verb; 
vigor, the object. The participle looking limits the inde- 
pendent term thou; on modifies looking. 

Sentence 8. The subject of the sentence is you, under- 
stood; Return, the predicate; home is an adverbial noun, 
the object of a preposition understood, the phrase limiting 
Return. The participle spent limits the independent noun 
winters. 

Sentence 9. Hope is independent, and is limited by the 
adjective participle lost; all is the subject of the sentence; 
is lost is the predicate. 

Sentence 10. Speaking is an independent participle, 
limited by Properly; chance is the subject of the sentence; 
can be is the predicate; in affairs limits can be; no modi- 
fies chance; there is independent as an explentive. 

Sentence 11. School is the subject of the sentence; was, 
the predicate; Friday is an adverbial noun of time limiting 
was through a preposition understood; there is independ- 
ent as an expletive. "The teacher being sick" is inde- 
pendent; the participle being limits teacher; sick is an 
adjective attribute after being. 

Sentence 12. The participle having been captured modi- 
fies the independent noun general; army is the subject of 
the sentence; was defeated, the predicate. 

Sentence 13. Train is the subject; fell, the predicate; 
the independent noun bridge is limited by at Ashtabula and 
the participle giving; way is a noun, the object of giving. 

Sentence 14. Murderer is the subject; does strike, the 
predicate; the and very limit murderer; wide modifies 
does strike; of part limits wide. "His victim sleeping be- 
fore him and his glaring eye taking the measure of the 
blow" is a compound independent phrase; victim and eye, 



F2nglish Grammar and Analysis 145 

connected by and, form the basis of the independent term; 
the participles sleeping and taking modify respectively 
victim and eye; before him limits sleeping; measure is the 
object of taking; glaring is a mere adjective modifying 
eye; Why modifies does strike. 

Sentence 15. One is the subject; should take, the in- 
complete predicate; share, the object; in it may limit 
should take or share; stock is independent; it is limited 
by the adjective conversation and the participle being; 
property is a noun attribute after being. 

Sentence 16. Speaking is an independent participle, 
limited by strictly; see the discussion under Sentence 1. 
Friendship is the subject of the principal clause; is con- 
nected, the predicate; nevertheless, closely, with virtue, 
limit is connected; "although it is not a virtue" modifies 
is connected; it is the subject of this subordinate adverbial 
clause of concession; is, the incomplete predicate; virtue, 
the attribute; not limits is; although is a subordinate con- 
junction, joining the clause to is connected. 

Sentence 17. Scene is the subject; was, the predicate; 
o'er may be here called an adjective, the attribute comple- 
ment, or it may be made an adverbial modifier of was. 
Whitney and Maetzner prefer to call adverbs used in such 
construction adjectives. The participle descending modi- 
fies the independent noun night; Now is independent as an 
expletive. 

The Participle used as Objective Complement 

1. We saw him sitting there. 

2. They found him reading. 

3. He thought himself ruined. 

4. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and 
some have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 

5. They found the peacock strutting about displaying his 
decorations to the best advantage. 

6. Envy is littleness of soul, which cannot see beyond a 
certain point; and if it does not occupy the whole space, it 
feels itself excluded. — Hazlitt. 

7. When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last 



146 A Teachers' Manual 

time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the 
broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious 
Union. — Webster. 

8. Seneca thinks the gods are well pleased when they 
see great men contending with adversity. — Burton. 

9. Not to know me argues yourselves unknown, 
The lowest of your throng. — Milton. 

10. I see them walking in an air of glory 

Whose light doth trample on my days. — Vaughn. 

11. I have heard the mavis singing 

Its love-song to the morn; 
I've seen the dew-drop clinging 

To the rose just newly born. — Jeffreys. 

12. I have seen the dark Nile pouring its freshening floods 
along its confined banks. 

13. I beheld Aemilius Tullius, the young Roman Centur- 
ion, of whom I have before spoken, now Prefect of Pilate's 
Legion, advancing at the head of two hundred horses, at 
full spur, in order to meet and turn back the advancing 
column of people. — Ingraham. 

14. All arouna me I see men carefully tying themselves 
with an unbreakable rope to an inmovable post at the 
bottom of a hill and then struggling to climb the hill. — 
Arnold Bennett. 

15. In prison he had found a self-appointed Tribunal 
sitting, before which the prisoners were brought singly. 

16. I do not want "The Golden Legend" and "The Essays 
of Elia" uniformed alike in a regiment of books. — Arnold 
Bennett. 

17. Now, I hear Somebody's step coming to the door. — 
Dickens. 

18. He would have thought himself as much undone by 
breaking his word as if it were to be followed by bank- 
ruptcy. — Addison. 

19. I observed a cow grazing not far from me, which an 
imagination that was apt to startle might easily have con- 
strued into, a black horse without a head. — Addison. 

20. The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small 
a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own 



English Grammar axd Analysis 147 

house, ordered all the apartments to be flung open. — 
Addison. 

21. She fancied that she saw her first husband coming 
towards her. — Addison. 

22. I saw the Black Dog in full flight, and the captain 
hotly pursuing. 

23. I heard a loud fall in the parlor, and running in, be- 
held the captain lying full length upon the floor. — Stevenson. 

24. It was shocking to hear him singing away at his 
ugly old sea-song. 

25. I found written on the other side, in a very good, clear 
hand, this short message: "You have till ten tonight." 

26. It has often set me thinking. 

27. He kept me waiting. — Reed and Kellogg. 

28. The Squire had had everything repaired. 

29. Yet some of the men who had sailed with him before 
expressed their pity to see him so reduced. — Stevenson. 

30. I could hear people tumbling up from the cabin. 

31. There can be no doubt that Addison saw through this 
officious zeal, and felt himself deeply aggrieved by it. — 
Macaulay. 

32. Many people have been surprised to see a man of his 
[Johnson's] genius and learning stooping to every drudgery, 
and denying himself almost every comfort, for the purpose 
of supplying a silly, affected old woman with superfluities, 
which she accepted with but little gratitude.— Macaulay. 

33. Pope, the poet, saw himself favored by the world. 

34. They considered themselves as condemned to labor 
for the luxury of the rich. — Johnson. 

35. Those that are not favored will think themselves in- 
jured. 

36. Every man hath a good and a bad angel attending on 
him in particular, all his life long. 

Observations 

Sentences 1, 2, and 3. In each sentence the participle is 
adjectival and refers, as the objective complement does, to 
the object. In 1, him is the object, and sitting the objective; 



148 A Teachers' Manual 

there modifies sitting. In 3, ruined is a past particple, 
used as the objective complement. 

Sentence 4. In the first member of this compound sen- 
tence, great is an attribute complement after are born; in 
the last member, thrust is a participle used as the objective 
complement. All these participles used as objective com- 
plements are adjectival and not nounal. From the nature 
of the case, it would be impossible to have a noun par- 
ticiple as objective complement: it refers in a verbal way 
to the object; and necessarily takes on the properties of an 
adjective. 

Sentence 5. The participle strutting is the objective com- 
plement; displaying has the same construction. Decora- 
tions is the object of displaying; to advantage limits dis- 
playing. 

Sentence 6. The subordinate clause of the first member 
limits littleness; can see, the verb, is modified by not. 
The second member is also complex; the subordinate clause 
limits feels; if is a subordinate conjunction. In the % prin- 
cipal part of the second member, it is the subject; feels the 
incomplete predicate; itself, the object; the adjective par- 
ticiple excluded is the objective complement. 

Sentence 7. Of the principal clause I is the subject; may 
see, the incomplete predicate; him, the object complement; 
and the participle shining, the objective complement; on 
fragments limits shining; broken and dishonored are mere 
adjectives limiting fragments; of Union modifies frag- 
ments; once limits glorious, which limits Union; a limits 
Union. In the subordinate clause eyes is the subject; shall 
be turned, the predicate; to behold limits the predicate, 
and is completed by the object sun; in heaven limits sun; 
When modifies shall be turned and may see, and joins the 
subordinate clause to this last-named verb. 

Sentence 8. Seneca is the subject of the principal clause; 
thinks is the incomplete predicate; the noun clause, "thb 
gods are well pleased when they see great men contending 
with adversity," is the object of thinks. In this noun clause 
gods is the subject of the principal part; are pleased is the 
predicate; this verb is modified by the following clause of 



English Grammar and Analysis 149 

time; in this clause they is the subject; see the incom- 
plete predicate; men, the object complement; the principle, 
contending, the objective complement; with adversity 
limits contending; when modifies are pleased and see. 

Sentence 9. To know, the subject, is limited by Not, and 
is completed by me, the object; argues is the incomplete 
predicate; yourselves is the object complement, and the 
participle unknown, the objective complement; lowest is an 
adjective pronoun, and is in apposition with yourselves; 
of throng modifies lowest. This construction is somewhat 
unusual, but is justified by the fact that the participle 
unknown really means unknown persons; unknown has 
too much of a verbal nature to be taken as an adjective 
pronoun. This verbal force of unknown is at once seen 
when the expression is expanded to its grammatical equiva- 
lent; for instance, "Not to know me argues that you are 
unknown." 

Sentence 10. Them is the object complement, and the 
participle walking the objective complement; in air limits 
walking; of glory limits air; the subordinate clause limits 
glory; Whose limits the subject light, and joins the clause 
to the antecedent glory; doth trample is the predicate of 
light. 

Sentence 11. In the first member, man's is the object 
complement, and the participle singing, the objective com- 
plement; love-song is the object of singing; to morn limits 
singing. In the second member dew-drops is the object 
complement, and the participle clinging the objective com- 
plement; To rose limits clinging; the adjective participle 
born limits rose; newly modifies born, and just limits 
newly. 

Sentence 12. Nile is the object complement, and the 
participle pouring, the objective complement; floods is the 
object of pouring; freshening is a mere adjective limiting 
floods; along banks modifies pouring; confined, a mere 
adjective, limits banks. 

Sentence 13. Aemilius Tullius is the object complement 
in the principal clause, and the participle advancing, the 
objective complement; Centurion is in apposition with 



150 A Teachers' Manual 

Aemilius Tullius; the, young, and Roman limit Centurion. 
The clauses "of whom I have before spoken, [and who is] 
now Prefect of Pilate"s Legion," limit Aemilius Tullius; of 
whom limits have spoken; the antecedent of whom is 
Aemilius Tullius; and, understood, joins the two adjective 
clauses; who, understood, is the subject of the second one; 
is, understood, is the complete predicate; Prefect is the 
attribute complement; the antecedent of who is Aemilius 
Tullius. At lead, at spur, and in order limit advancing; to 
meet and [to] spur liimt order; column is the object of 
meet and turn; back is an adverb limiting turn; advancing 
is a mere adjective modifying column. 

Sentence 14. I is the subject; see, the incomplete predi- 
cate; men, the object complement; tying and struggling, 
both participles, the objective complements; themselves 
is the object of tying; with rope and to post limit tying; 
at bottom may modify either tying or post; to climb limits 
struggling; hill is the object of climb; around me limits 
see; all limits the preposition around. 

Sentence 15. Tribunal is the object complement; the 
participle sitting is the objective complement; In prison 
modifies had found; the subordinate clause limits Tribunal; 
before which limits were brought; the antecedent of which 
is Tribunal. 

Sentence 16. The titles "The Golden Legend" and "The 
Essays of Elia," are the object; the participle uniformed 
is the objective complement; alike and in regiment limit 
uniformed. The titles may be treated in the analysis as a 
single word, or they may be separated. 

Sentence 17. Step is the object; the participle coming 
is the objective complement; Now is independent — an 
expletive; Somebody's is a proper noun limiting step. 

Sentence 18. Himself is the object, and the participle 
undone the objective complement; by breaking limits un- 
done; breaking is a noun participle, having word for its 
object; undone is also limited by much, and much by as; as 
is limited by the clause understood "as he would be un- 
done;" this second as limits would be undone, understood, 
and joins this little clause to the as limiting much; the 



English Grammar and Analysis 151 

clause, "if it were to be followed by bankruptcy," limits 
would be undone, understood; to be followed is an infini- 
tive, the attribute after were; if is a subordinate conjunc- 
tion. 

Sentence 19. Cow is tbe object, and the participle graz- 
ing, the objective complement; far limits grazing; not. and 
from me limit far; the clause, "which an imagination might 
easily have construed into a black horse without a head," 
limits cow. Of this clause, which is the subject, might 
have construed, the predicate; into horse limits the verb; 
without head limits horse; which joins the clause to its 
antecedent cow; "that Was apt to startle" limits imagina- 
tion; that is the subject; was, the incomplete predicate; 
apt, the attribute complement; to startle limits apt; the 
antecedent of that is imagination. 

Sentence 20. Knight is the subject; ordered, the incom- 
plete predicate; apartments, the object; and to be flung, 
the objective complement; open limits the infinitive to be 
flung. Knight is modified by the participle seeing; seeing 
is completed by the compound objects habitation and him- 
self; it is further completed by the participles reduced and 
shut, both objective complements; reduced is limited by 
to compass; small and a limit compass; so modifies small; 
out of house limits shut; out of is a phrase preposition 
used as a single word. 

Sentence 21. Of the principal clause, She is the subject; 
fancied, the incomplete predicate; the noun clause follow- 
ing is the object. Of this clause she is the subject; saw, 
the incomplete predicate; husband, the object complement, 
and the participle coming, the objective complement; that 
is an introductory conjunction, subordinate in its nature. 

Sentence 22. Black Dog and captain are the compound 
objects; pursuing, the single objective complement, goes 
with captain; this participle is limited by hotly; in flight 
may modify either Black Dog or the verb. It is impossible 
to say which expression is exclusively limited by such a 
phrase as in flight; it inclines to be adjectival, yet not 
sufficiently strong to preclude an adverbial force. 

Sentence 23. Heard and beheld are the compound incom- 



i52 A Teachers' Manual 

plete predicate; heard takes fall for its object; beheld 
is completed by the object captain and the participle lying 
as objective complement; fall is modified by in parlor; 
length is an abverbial noun, the object of some preposi- 
tion understood; this phrase limits lying; upon floor modi- 
fies lying; full is an adjective modifier of length. 

Sentence 24. To hear is in apposition with the subject 
It; was is the incomplete predicate; the adjective shocking 
is the attribute complement; hear is completed by the 
object him and by the objective complement singing, a 
participle; away and at sea-song limit singing; his, ugly, 
and old modify sea-song. 

Sentence 25. Found is the incomplete predicate; mes- 
sage is the object, and the participle written, the objective 
complement; on side and in hand modify written; a, good, 
and clear limit hand. The noun clause, "You have till ten 
tonight," is in apposition with message; of this clause You 
is the subject; have, the predicate; till ten limits have; ten 
is an adjective pronoun; tonight is the object of some 
preposition understood; the entire phrase limits ten. 

Sentence 26. Me is the object, and the participle thinking 
is the objective complement. In sentences of this type, 
the student frequently fails to see why thinking should be 
the objective complement, and he cannot see why the 
participle should not be taken as the immediate modifier 
of the object. A little reflection will make it clear that the 
complete assertion made is not, "It has set me," but "has 
set me thinking." 

■Sentence 27. See 26. 

Sentence 28. Everything is the object, and the participle 
repaired the objective complement. 

Sentence 29. Yet joins this sentence to something pre- 
ceding; to see modifies the object pity; him is the object 
of see, and the participle reduced the objective complement; 
so limits reduced. 

Sentence 30. People is the object of could hear, and the 
participle tumbling the objective complement; up and from 
cabin limit tumbling. 

Sentence 31. There is independent as an expletive; 



English Grammar and Analysis 153 

doubt is the subject; can be, the predicate; the noun clause 
that follows is the object of some preposition understood 
like about, and through this preposition limits doubt; this 
elaborate phrase can also limit can be. Addison is the sub- 
ject of the noun clause; saw and felt the compound incom- 
plete predicate; himself is the object complement of felt, 
and the participle aggrieved, the objective complement. 

Sentence 32. Have been surprised is modified by to see; 
man is the subject of see, and the participles stooping and 
denying, the objective complements; himself is the indirect 
object of denying, and comfort the direct; for purpose 
limits denying; of supplying modifies purpose; supplying 
is a noun participle, taking woman as a direct object; 
affected is a mere adjective; with superfluities modifies 
supplying; "which she accepted with but little gratitude" 
is an adjective clause limiting superfluities; which is the 
object of accepted, and joins the clause to its antecedent 
superfluities; but limits little; learning is a mere noun; 
the proper noun Johnson's is thrown in for purposes of 
explanation, and need not be considered in the analysis; 
if it were analyzed, it would be taken as in apposition 
with his. 

Sentence 33. Himself is the object, and the participle 
favored, the objective complement; poet is in apposition 
with Poet. 

Sentence 34. Themselves is the object complement, 
and the participle condemned, the objective complement; 
as is an introductory subordinate conjunction, introducing 
the objective complement. It is wholly unnecessary to ex- 
pand the sentence in the following form so that as becomes 
a conjunctive adverb of manner. "They considered them- 
selves as they would have done if they had been con- 
uemned," etc. In the type of sentence given originally in 
sentence 34, as is used in a manner occurring in forms 
entirely idiomatic. In "We considered him as leader," 
as is called^ an introductory conjunction, used to intro- 
duce the objective complement; this is quite correct. It 
matters little in the construction whether the objective 



154 A Teachers' Manual 

complement be a noun, a pronoun, or a participle. To 
labor and for luxury limit condemned. 

Sentence 35. In the principal clause, themselves is the 
object of think, and the participle injured the objective 
complement; that are not favored is an adjective clause 
limiting those; are favored is the verb. 

Sentence 36. Attending is the objective complement; 
life is an adverbial noun, limiting attending through some 
preposition understood; all, his, and long limit life. 

The Participal used as Object of a Preposition 

1. Every tree and shrub is a distaff for holding, and 
every twig a spindle for spinning, the material with which 
God invests it. — Holland. 

2. Great minds had rather deserve contemporaneous ap- 
plause, without obtaining it, than obtain, without deserving 
it. — Colton. 

3. Aristocracy saves the people from violating the law, 
and the king from oppressing the people. — Haydon. 

4. Nobody writes a book without meaning something. — 
Addison. 

5. Men of the pen have seldom any great skill in 
conquering kingdoms, but they have strong inclination t:> 
give advice. — Johnson. 

6. Ihere is no surer sign of a bad heart than for a writer 
to find delight in degrading his species. — Whipple. 

7. The divine last touch in perfecting the beautiful is 
animation. — Wallace. 

8. A life that is worth writing at all is worth writing 
minutely. — Longfellow. 

9. The field is worth ploughing well. 

10. Books, like men, their authors, have no more than 
one way of coming into the world. — Swift. 

11. If you would know the value of money, go and try 
to borrow some; for he that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrow- 
ing. — Franklin. 

12. The maid went a-milking. 

13. I go a-fishing. 

14. Dangers, by being despised, grow great. — Burke. 



English Grammar and Analysis 155 

15. They could not save him from being injured. 

16. There is no doubt of its being him. 

17. The last pleasure in life is the sense of discharging 
our duty. — Hazlitt. 

18. God never imposes a duty without giving the time to 
do it. — Ruskin. 

19. We persuade others by being in earnest ourselves. — 
Hazlitt. 

20. Censure is a tax a man pays to the public for being 
eminent. — Swift. 

21. There is no better ballast for keeping the mind 
steady on its keel, and saving it from all risk of crankiness, 
than business. — Lowell. 

22. Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth by 
calling imagination to the help of reason. — Johnson. 

23. Next to being a great poet is the power of under- 
standing one.— Longfellow. 

24. Talking is like playing on the harp; there is as much 
in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibrations, 
as in twanging them to bring out their music. — Holmes. 

25. Blessed is the man who, having nothing to say, 
abstains from giving us wordy evidence of the fact. — 
George Eliot. 

26. Nothing in his life 

Became him like the leaving it. — Shakespeare. 

27. Unpack my heart with words, 

And fall a-cursing, like a very drab. — Shakespeare. 

28. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, 
Old Time is still a-flying. — Herrick. 

29. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 
— Chesterfield. 

30. There is no good in arguing with the inevitable. — 
Lowell. 

31. This is worth taking thought of.— Carlyle. 

32. Contentment consisteth not in adding more fuel, but 
in taking away some fire. — Fuller. 

33. There is nothing* by which a man exasperates most 
people more than by displaying a superior ability or bril- 
liancy in conversation. — Johnson. 



156 A Teachers' Manual 

34. Courage multiplies the chances of success by some- 
times making opportunities, and always availing itself of 
them. — 'Coleridge. 

35. A little mind often sees the unbelief without seeing 
the oelief of large ones. — Holmes. 

36. Let the loss of our friends be our only grief, and the 
apprehension of displeasing them our only fear. — Landor. 

37. Oratory is the power of beating down your adver- 
sary's arguments, and putting better in their place. — 
Johnson. 

38. Piety, like wisdom, consists in the discovery of the 
rules under which we are actually placed, and in faithfully 
obeying thorn . — Fro ude . 

39. We cannot know things by words and writing, but 
only by taking a central position in the universe and living 
in its forms. — Emerson. 

40. Two gifts are indispensable to the dramatic poet: 
one is the power of forgetting himself, the other the power 
of remembering his characters. — iStoddard. 

41. I should as soon think of swimming across the 
Charles River when I wish to go to Boston, as of reading 
all my books in originals, when I have them rendered for 
me in my motner tongue. — Emerson. 

42. No pleasure is comparable to the standing upon the 
vantage-ground of truth. — Bacon. 

43. There's nothing like being used to a thing. — Sheridan. 

44. All the courtiers fall a-laughing, but Menalcas laughs 
louder than any of them. — Addison. 

Observations 

Sentence 1. In this simple sentence, tree, shrub, and 
twig are the compound subject; is is the predicate; the 
number of the verb is singular because the subjects are 
preceded by Every, and are accordingly taken separately 
in thought; distaff and spindle are the compound attribute 
complement; for holding limits distaff, and for spinning 
limits spindle; holding and spinning are noun participles be- 
cause they are names that take objects; holding and 
spinning have the common object material; this object is 



English Grammar and Analysis 157 

modified >by the adjective clause, "with which God invests 
it." In this subordinate clause, invests is modified by with 
which; the antecedent of which is material, to which the 
clause is joined. 

Sentence 2. A complex sentence. In the principal clause 
minds is the subject; had, the incomplete predicate; rather, 
here an adjective, is the objective complement, and the 
infinitive deserve is the object; the literal meaning is, 
"Great minds hold to deserve applause, etc., better than," 
etc.; rather here means better; for an interesting discus- 
sion of this expression, see Professor Lounsbury's excellent 
book, The Standard of Good Usage. The phrase, without 
obtaining it, limits the infinitive deserve; it is the object 
of obtaining; applause is the object of deserve; the to is 
omitted. The subordinate clause — one of degree — modifies 
rather through the conjunctive adverb than; "they would" 
may be supplied to complete the subordinate clause; they 
is the subject, would obtain, the incomplete predicate; it 
understood, the object; without deserving limits would ob- 
tain; it is the object of deserving; than limits would obtain 
and joins the clause to rather; see p. 36. 

Sentence 3. From violating limits saves; law is the 
object of violating; from oppressing limits saves; people 
is the object of oppressing; people and king are the com- 
pound object. 

Sentence 4. Without meaning limits writes; something 
is the ohject of meaning. 

Sentence 5. Skill, the object of have, is limited by in 
conquering; kingdoms is the object of conquering; seldom 
limits have; any limits skill; to give limits the object in- 
clination in the second member; advice is the object of give. 

(Sentence 6. There is independent as an expletive; sign 
is tne subject; no, surer, and of heart limit sign; is is the 
predicate; the subordinate clause denotes degree, and 
limits surer through the conjunctive adverb than. In the 
subordinate clause, "for a writer to find delight in degrad- 
ing his species" is the subject; is, understood, is the in- 
complete predicate; sure, understood, the attribute comple- 
ment; in the subject of this clause the preposition for takes 



158 A Teachers' Manual 

the expression writer to find as its object, and not the word 
writer alone; the subject term is not merely "for a writer," 
but is "for a writer to find"; to find, completed by the ob- 
ject delight, limits writer; in degrading, completed by the 
object species, limits find; than modifies sure, understood, 
and joins the clause to surer. 

Sentence 7. In perfecting limits touch; beautiful, here 
an abstract noun, is the object of perfecting. 

Sentence 8. In the principal clause, is is the incomplete 
predicate; the adjective worth, the attribute complement; 
writing is a noun participle, limited by the adverb 
minutely; writing is the object of a preposition understood, 
having the force of an adverbial noun denoting value; the 
phrase, namely, the participle the object of the preposition, 
understood, limits the adjective worth; "that is worth writ- 
ing at all" modifies life; here again worth is an adjective 
attribute; again the noun participle writing, denotes value 
and is the object of a preposition understood; the phrase 
formed by this preposition understood and the noun par- 
ticiple limits worth; at all limits writing, all is an adjective 
pronoun; that, the relative pronoun, joins the subordinate 
clause to life. See Sentence 9. 

Sentence 9. Similar to Sentence 8, this construction con- 
tains worth as an attribute complement; ploughing is a 
noun participle denoting value, and is the object of a 
preposition understood; the prase thus formed by the 
preposition understood and its object ploughing limits 
worth; well modifies ploughing. If well were not in the 
sentence, ploughing would be an adverbial noun — it would 
have no verbal nature at all; the addition of an adverbial 
modifier gives ploughing a different force. In such sen- 
tences as, "The house is worth a thousand dollars," and 
"The house is worth painting," both dollars and painting 
are adverbial nouns denoting value; the latter noun has no 
more a verbal nature than dollars; but let the sentence 
read, "The house is worth painting thoroughly," then paint- 
ing plainly takes on a verbal nature. The adverbial term 
thoroughly clearly shows this. The participial noun still 
denotes value, and has the same construction as given in 



English Grammar and Analysis 159 

the second sentence above; that is, it is the object of some 
preposition understood. It should be noted further that 
worth, when denoting value, is never a verb. In sentences 
8 and 9 worth is an adjective. 

Sentence 10. A complex sentence; the subject of the 
principal clause, Books, is limited by the adjective like; 
have is the incomplete predicate; ways, understood, is the 
object complement; like is modified by the phrase [unto] 
men, unto being understood; authors is in apposition with 
men; ways, the object understood, is modified by no and 
more. In the subordinate clause way is the subject; is, 
understood, the predicate; the attribute what may or may 
not be supplied; of coming limits way; into world modifies 
coming; than, a conjunctive adverb, modifies is, understood, 
and joins the clause to more. 

Sentence 11. A complex-compound sentence; of the first 
member you, understood, is the subject of the principal 
clause; go and try, the complete predicate; to borrow is 
the object of try; some is an adjective pronoun, the ob- 
ject of borrow; the subordinate clause beginning, "If you," 
etc., limits go and try; If is a subordinate conjunction. The 
second member has he for the subject of the principal part 
and goes as the predicate; goes is modified by the preposi- 
tional phrase a-sorrowing; a is here a preposition and the 
noun participle sorrowing is its object; the subordinate 
clause limits be; that is the subject, and goes, the predi- 
cate; a-borrowing limits goes; again a is a preposition with 
the noun participle borrowing as its object. The gram- 
matical equivalent is "he that goes to borrow goes to sor- 
row." This use of a is very old, and in most cases of this 
type is the equivalent of on, in, for, at or to. The 
prefix often occurs before other parts of speech. "He was 
taken a-back," and "It runs a-wheels" are examples. The 
causal coordinate for connects the members. 

Sentences 12 and 13. Again a has the force of a prepo- 
sition, with the noun participles as objects. In both cases 
the phrases are equivalent to the infinitives, respectively, 
to milk and to fish. This sufficiently illustrates the verbal 
nature of the original expressions. 



160 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 14. Great is an adjective attribute after grow; 
by being despised limits grow; being despised is a noun 
participle. 

Sentence 15. Being injured is a noun participle the ob- 
ject of from; not limits the verb; his limits being injured. 

Sentence 16. There is independent as an expletive; 
doubt is the subject of the sentence; is is the predicate; 
the phrase of its being him limits doubt; the noun participle 
being is completed by the objective attribute him; him is 
not the object of of, but it has the objective case because 
of its being governed by of; not being, alone, but being 
him is the object of of. If the expression were used as the 
subject of a sentence, him would be changed to he; for in- 
stance, "Its being he makes no difference." Here he is a 
nominative attribute after being; the phrase being he has a 
subject construction. 

Sentence 17. In life limits pleasure. 

Sentence 18. Giving is completed by the object time, 
which is modified by to do; it is the object of do. 

Sentence 19. By being limits persuade; in earnest limits 
being; earnest is an adjective pronoun; ourselves is in ap- 
position with We. 

Sentence 20. Which must be supplied in the subordinate 
clause; it is the object of pays; to public and for being 
eminent modify pays; eminent is an attribute after being. 

Sentence 21. A complex sentence; There is independent 
as an expletive; ballast is the subject of the principal 
clause; is, the predicate; no, better, and for keeping, and 
[for] saving limit ballast; the noun participle keeping is 
completed by the object mind and the objective comple- 
ment steady, an adjective; on keel limits keeping; saving, 
the other object of for, is completed by it, and is modified 
by from risk. The subordinate clause, one of degree, limits 
more; business is the subject; is, understood, the predicate; 
than, a conjunctive adverb, modifies is, and joins the clause 
to more. 

Sentence 22. Of uniting limits art; pleasure is the object 
of the noun participle writing; with truth and by calling 



English Grammar and Analysis 161 

limit writing; imagination is the object of calling; to help 
limits calling. 

Sentence 23. Power is the subject; is the incomplete 
predicate; Next, the attribute complement; of understand- 
ing limits power; one is tne object of understanding; to 
being limits Next; poet is the attribute after being. It 
seems more consistent to give the objective case to poet 
than to construe it as the nominative; see observation 
under Sentence 16. Of course poet cannot be the object 
of being inasmuch as this participle comes from an in- 
transitive verb; but poet is an attribute after an expression 
objectively used, or controlled by a preposition. If the ex- 
pression were in some manner used as a subject phrase, 
poet would be given the nominative case. The form of the 
word, however, is uninfluenced, whether the case ascribed 
is nominative or objective. 

Sentence 24. A complex-compound sentence. Talking is 
the suoject of the first member; is, the incomplete predi- 
cate; like, the attribute complement; unto playing limits 
like; unto is understood; on harp limits playing. In the 
second member, much is the subject of the principal clause; 
is, the predicate; as and in laying limit much; hands is 
the object of laying; on strings and to stop limit laying; 
vibrations is the object of stop; much understood, is the 
subject of the subordinate clause of the second member; 
is, understood, the predicate; in twanging limits is; them 
is the object of twanging; to bring limits twanging; music 
is the object or bring; the adverb out limits bring; as 
limits is, and joins the clause to the first as. 

Section 25. Man is the subject of the principal clause; 
is, the incomplete predicate; the adjective Blessed, the at- 
tribute. Who is the subject of the subordinate clause; 
abstains, the predicate; the adjective participle having 
limits who; nothing is the object of having; to say limits 
nothing; from giving limits abstains; evidence is the direct 
object and us the indirect object of the noun participle 
giving. 

Sentence 26. In life limits the subject Nothing; him is 
the object of Because; like modifies Because; leaving is the 



162 A Teachers' Manual 

object of unto, understood, unto leaving limits like; it is 
the object of leaving. 

Sentence 27. You, understood, is the subject; Unpack 
and fall, the compound incomplete predicate; heart is the 
object of Unpack; with words limits Unpack; fall is limited 
by the prepositional phrase a-cursing; a is a preposition, 
and cursing a noun participle; like limits cursing; drab is 
the object of unto, understood; unto drab limits like; a and 
very limit drab. See Sentences 11, 12, and 13. 

Sentence 28. A complex-compound sentence; ye is the 
subject of the principal ciause of the first member; Gather, 
the incomplete predicate; rosebuds, the object; "while ye 
may" limits Gather; ye is the subject of this subordinate 
clause; may gather is the incomplete predicate; them is 
the object; gather and them are understood; while limits 
both Gather and may gather and joins the clause to 
Gather. In the second member, Time is the subject; is, 
the predicate; is is limited by still and the prepositional 
phrase a-flying; a is a preposition, and flying, a noun par- 
ticiple is its object. See Sentences 11, 12, 13, and 27. For, 
understood, is the causal co-ordinate conjunction. 

Sentence 29. Some such term as That, understood, is 
the subject of the principal clause; is, the incomplete 
predicate; the adjective worth, the attribute complement; 
the noun participal doing, the object of some preposition 
understood, denotes value; this preposition and its object 
doing limit worth; well limits doing. Whatever is the sub- 
ject of the subordinate clause; is, worth, and doing, are 
disposed of as above; at all limits doing; all is an adjective 
pronoun. For sentences having similar construction, see 
8 and 9 above. Some writers make "Whatever is worth 
doing at all" a noun clause, the subject of the sentence; 
this view does seem entirely satisfactory. 

Sentence 30. There is independent as an expletive; good 
is the subject; is, the predicate; in arguing modifies either 
good or is; with inevitable limits the nOun participle ar- 
guing; inevitable is an adjective ponoun. Often in con- 
structions of this kind the position of such a modifying 
phrase as in arguing is not easy to determine; at times it 



English Grammar and Analysis 163 

seems more desirable to call the phrase a modifier of the 
subject, and again it more forcibly presents the meaning 
by being construed as an element limiting the predicate. 
It is not only impossible, but also undesirable, to offer an 
arbitrary ruling; meaning alone can determine the best 
disposition to be made of the elements. 

Sentence 31. See Sentence 8, 9, and 29, for the construc- 
tion of worth and taking; taking, the object of a preposition 
understood, denotes value; the phrase limits the adject at- 
tribute worth; thought is the object of taking; of limits 
taking; it is here an idiomatic. adverb. The original force 
of of is seen in case the sentence is recast to read, 
"Thought of it is worth taking." By some of is spoken 
of as a "retained proposition' with the force of an adverb; 
yet in the sentence as it stands little of the prepositional 
nature is really "retained." By the flexibility of language, 
of becomes an idiomatic adverb; i. e., the construction is 
entirely idiomatic instead of commonplace in its disposi- 
tion of of. 

Sentence 32. The phrases in adding and in taking limit 
consisteth; but connects the phrases; not limits consisteth; 
adding is completed by the object fuel and taking, by the 
object fire; away modifies taking. The logical force of the 
sentence is shown more clearly by expanding it to read, 
•'Contentment consisteth not in adding more fuel, but it 
consisteth in taking away some fire." Although this is 
more clumsy, yet it is here seen that not negatives the verb 
modified by the one phrase only, in adding, and does not 
negative the consisteth, understood, which is limited by in 
taking. It is not necessary to expand the sentence to 
analyze it. 

Sentence 33. There is independent as an expletive; noth- 
ing is the subject of the principal clause; is, the predicate; 
"by which man exasperates most people more" is the first 
subject clause; it is adjectival, and limits nothing. Man 
is tne subject of exasperates; people is the object; more 
limits exasperates; the next subordinate clause denotes de- 
gree, and modifies more. Of this clause, he, understood, 
is the subject; exasperates, understood, the incomplete 



164 A Teachers' Manual 

predicate; them, understood, the object; by displaying 
modifies exasperates, understood; ability and brilliancy are 
the object of the noun participle displaying; than modifies 
exasperates, understood, and joins the clause to more. The 
sentence is complex-complex. 

Sentence 34. By making and availing limit multiplies; 
opportunities is the object of the noun participle making 
and itself is the object of the noun participle availing; 
sometimes limits making; always and of them modify 
availing. Making and availing are the objects of by. 

Sentence 35. Without seeing limits sees; belief is the 
object of seeing. 

Sentence 36. You, understood, is the subject; Let is 
completed by the objects loss and apprehension; the infini- 
tive phrase [to] be grief is the objective complement com- 
pleting Let and giving with loss; [to be] fear is the object 
complement going with apprehension; of displeasing limits 
apprehension; them is the object of displeasing. 

Sentence 37. Of beating and putting limit power; argu- 
ments is the object of beating, and ones, understood, is the 
object of putting, the other term in the compound participal 
object; down limits beating; in place modifies putting. 

Sentence 38. Like is an adjective limiting Piety; unto 
wisdom limits like, unto being supplied; in discovery and 
in obeying limit consists; them is the object of the noun 
participle obeying; faithfully limits obeying. In the sub- 
ordinate clause we is the subject of are placed; actually 
and under which modify the predicate; rules, the term 
modified by the clause, is the antecedent of which. 

Sentence 39. The predicate can know is modified by 
by words and writing and by by taking and living; these 
compound prepositional phrases are connected by but; only 
limits by taking and living; that is, it refers as a modifier 
to the preposition and to the participles; writing is a mere 
noun; position is the object of taking; in forms limits liv- 
ing; in universe modifies taking. 

Sentence 40. A compound sentence; no connection be- 
tween the first and second members can satisfactorily be 
supplied; and, understood, connects the second and third 



English Grammar and Analysis 165 

members; of forgetting limits power; himself is the object 
of forgetting; of remembering, a modifier of power in the 
third member; characters is the object of remembering. 
The second and third members sustain a grammatical ap- 
position with gifts, yet they are not so treated gram- 
matically. If they were placed in apposition with gifts in 
the first member, the entire sentence would be complex, 
whereas it is plainly compound. 

Sentence 41. A complex-complex sentence; "I should as 
soon think of swimming across the Charles River" is the 
principal clause; across Charles River limits the noun par- 
ticipal swimming; soon limits should think; as limits soon; 
"when I wish to go to Boston" modifies should think; when 
modifies wish and should think; to go is the object of wish; 
as is modified by "as I should think of reading all my books 
in originals"; the words "I should think" are supplied; as 
modifies should think, and joins the clause to the first as; 
the last clause -beginning, "when I have," etc., limits 
should think, understood; then is the object of have; ren- 
dered, an adjective participle, is the objective complement; 
for me and in tongue modify rendered; of reading limits 
should think, understood; books is the object of reading; 
in originals limits reading. 

Sentence 42. Standing is a noun participle. 

Sentence 43. There is independent as an expletive; 
nothing is the subject; is, the incomplete predicate; like, 
the attribute complement; [unto] being used limits like; be- 
ing used is a noun participle, and is treated as one word. 

Sentence 44. Laughing is the object of the preposition a; 
the sentence is complex-compound. The little subordinate 
clause of degree, "than any of them laugh," limits louder. 
See Sentences 11, 12, 13. 

The Participle used as Attribute Complement, 
Noun Construction 

1. Education is leading human souls to what is best, and 
making what is best out of them. — Ruskin. 

2. It is not so much the being exempt from faults, as the 
having overcome them, that is an advantage to us. — Pope. 



166 A Teachers' Manual 

3. Knowledge is the knowing that we cannot know. — 
Emerson. 

4. Drawing is speaking to the eye; talking is painting 
to the air. — Joubert. 

5. It is not wishing and desiring to be saved will bring 
men to heaven: hell's mouth is full of good wishes. — T. 
Shepard. 

Observations 

Although the noun participle is used as an attribute 
complement by good stylists, yet the construction very 
rarely occurs. The sentences given are sufficient to illus- 
trate its nature. 

Sentence 1. Leading and making are the compound 
attribute complement; souls is the object of leading; the 
noun clause, "what is best," is the object of to; the 
preposition and its clause object limit leading; making 
is completed by the object noun clause, "what is best;" 
out of them limits making; out of is a phrase preposition; 
the sentence is complex. Instead of treating "what is 
best" as a noun clause, it may be taken in each case as 
an adjective clause, if the antecedent term is supplied. 
The antecedents would then be the respective objects of 
leading and making, and would be modified by the adjective 
clause. 

Sentence 2. In the complex sentence, It is the subject of 
the principal clause; is, the incomplete predicate; the noun 
participle, being exempt, is the attribute complement; not 
and much limit is; so limits much. The clause, "as the 
having overcome them," limits so; it, understood, is the 
subject of is, understood; having overcome is the attribute 
complement, a noun participle; them is the object of 
having overcome. The adjective clause, "that is an ad- 
vantage to us," modifies both participles, being exempt and 
having overcome; the phrase, to us limits advantage or 
is; the antecedent of that is the participles named above. 

Sentence 3. Knowing is a noun participle used as the 
attribute complement after is; "that we cannot know," a 
noun clause, is the object of knowing; that is an intro- 



English Grammar and Analysis 167 

dilatory conjunction; cannot is, of course, separated into 
the verb can and the adverb not. 

Sentence 4. The conjunction and may be supplied to 
join the members of this compound sentence; Drawing, 
of the first member, and talking, in the second, are mere 
nouns. They have no modifiers nor logical values to show 
a verbal force; speaking and painting are noun participles 
used as attributes. 

Sentence 5. The noun participles, wishing and desiring, 
are attributes; to be saved is the common object of these 
participles; that is the subject of the subordinate clause, 
"will bring men to heaven;" the antecedent of that is the 
two participles. The conjunction for may be supplied to 
connect the two members. Tne sentence is complex-com- 
pound. 

Although Resembling Participles in Form, the Bold- 
Faced Words in the Following Sentences 
are Mere Nouns 

1. The burning of Rome was an outrage. 

2. He studies reading. 

3. The cackling of geese saved the city. 

4. Questioning is not the mode of conversation among 
gentlemen. — Johnson. 

5. Hunting was the labor of the savages of North 
America, but the amusement of the gentlemen of England. 
— Johnson. 

G. He could sympathize with suffering. 

7. In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill. — Gold- 
smith. 

8. Learning will be cast into the mire and trodden down 
under the hoofs of a swinish multitude. — Burke. 

9. Accent is a kind of chanting; all men have accent of 
their own. — Carlyle. 

10. From every marsh and puddle will arise the bellow- 
ing, croaking, and trilling of legions of frogs. — Parkman. 

11. Wright, our friends' muleteer, after some swearing 
and lashing, got his insubordinate train in motion. — Park- 
man. 



168 A Teachers' Manual 

12. Irving is in description what Backhuysen is in paint- 
ing. — Wallace. 

13. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the 
sun. — Longfellow. 

14. I don't know whether our literary professional people 
are more amiable than they are in other places, but cer- 
tainly quarreling is out of fashion among them. — Holmes. 

15. The Lord shall send upon thee cursing. 
±6. Our cradle is the starting place; 

Life is the running of the race. 

17. Hear the tolling of the bells- 

Iron bells! — Poe. 

18. There's but the twinkling of a star 
Between a man of peace and war. — Butler. 

19. Doubt not that angling will prove, like virtue, a 
reward to itself. — Walton. 

20. Saying and doing are two things. — M. Henry. 

Observations 

All the bold-faced words in the above are mere nouns 
because they simply are names. In no case are they used 
to express action. 

Sentence 7. Too limits owned. 

Sentence 13. Like is an adjective attribute complement; 
unto setting limits like, unto being understood. 

Sentence 17. Iron bells is independent by exclamation. 

Sentence 19. Reward is the attribute complemert; 
like limits will prove; [unto] virtue limits like. 

The Bold-Faced Words, Which Resemble Participles 
is Form, are Mere Adjectives 

1. Death loves a shining mark. — Young. 

2. He read a celebrated poem. 

3. The chair is broken. 

4. He is wounded. 

5. They were terrified. 

6. The flowing river runs smoothly on. 



English Grammar and Analysis 169 

7. A pleasing land of drowsy head it was, 

Of dreams that wave before the half-shut eye. 

— Thomson. 

8. See, Winter comes to rule the varied year. — Thompson. 

9. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. — Sterne. 

10. Bright-eyed Fancy, hov'ring o'er, 
Scatters from her pictured urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. — Gray 

11. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 

. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. — Gray. 

12. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. — Gray. 

13. Let others hail the rising sun: 

I bow to that whose course is run. — Garrick. 

14. Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. 

— Goldsmith. 

15. O Winter, ruler of the inverted year. — Cowper. 

16. He whom he had saved was going down from 
Jerusalem to Jericho — to the accursed city (so the old 
church used to understand it). — Ruskin. 

17. The horses were turned to feed among the scattered 
bushes of a low, oozy meadow. — Parkman. 

18. The scenery, though tame, is graceful and pleasing. 
— Parkman. 

19. In general nothing is less attractive than an epitome, 
but the epitomes of Goldsmith, even when most concise, 
are always amusing. — Macaulay. 

20. Give me the clear blue sky over my head, and the 
green turf beneath my feet, a winding road before me, 
and a three hours' march to dinner — and then to thinking! 
— Hazlitt. 

Observations 

All the bold-faced words are mere adjectives inasmuch 
as they are only descriptive or definitive words. They do 
not express action. 

Sentence 12. Many and a limit gem, or many a may be 
used together; Full limits many or both words. 



170 A Teachers' Manual 

Sentence 14. Land is the subject of the principal clause; 
ill is the attribute after fares; prey is in apposition with 
land; to ills limits prey; the subordinate clause is com- 
pound, and modifies land. 

Sentence 16. To city modifies was going; the paren- 
thetical expression is independent; to understand modifies 
the intransitive verb used. 

Sentence 17.. "And then to thinking" is an ellipsis to 
be expanded to another member, "and then let me go to 
thinking." 



CHAPTER IV. 

Complements 

Various terms have been given to designate the words 
used to complete the predicate. Likewise, different names 
have been applied to the verb when followed by such 
words. In, "He is strong," is is often called the predicate; 
others call is strong the predicate. The latter view seems 
the consistent one. The assertion made of He is not that 
He is, but that He is strong. The verb is is the incom- 
plete predicate, and strong the complement. Attribute 
complement, subjective complement, predicate attribute, 
predicate adjective, are the more usual names applied to 
an adjective in this construction. If the complement is 
a noun, the term, predicate nominative, is sometimes used. 

The Attribute Complement 

The attribute complement is a word or a group of words 
that complete the predicate and refer to the subject. This 
complement may be a word, phrase, or clause. 

The attribute as a single word: 

1. He was made president. 

2. He was called John. 
The phrase as attribute: 

1. He is about to go. 

2. To see is to believe. 

3. He sat quietly thinking over his past life. 

4. He was without friends. 

5. The way is said to be hard. 
The clause as attribute: 

1. His thought was, It will never succeed. 

2. The old maxim runs, It is a long lane that has no 
turn. 

3. The question is, How do they manage to live? 

Some words, especially participles, seem to have the 
force of adverbs, but it is better to construe them as 

171 



172 A Teachers' Manual 

participles. On another page (132) this type of sentence 
has been pointed out. The following will illustrate: 

1. He ran shouting. 

2. He sat thinking. 

3. The child lies sleeping. 

Such terms as grow, become, live, die, turn out, go, come, 
are frequently followed by attributes. Illustrations: 

1. He grew tall. 

2. He lives happy. 

3. He turned out a good man. 

In 2, out is an adverb, and man is an attribute comple- 
ment. 

4. He became the leader. 

5. He lived and died a true soldier. 

6. He came and went a man among many. 

Infinitives of future completion used to complete an 
assertion are also attributes. To illustrate: 

1. He is to go tomorrow. 

2. He was to have finished. 

3. They are going to try once more. 

The Object Complement 

The object complement, or object, is a word or a grtiup 
of words used to complete the predicate and name that 
which receives directly the act. It may be a word, phrase, 
or clause. 

Word: He had a book. He was given a book. He has 
taught grammar. He was taught grammar. 

Phrase: He told me to go. 

Clause: He said that he should go. 

The Double Object 

Double object is a term applied to a number of con- 
structions. A compound object, a direct and an indirect 
object, an object and an objective complement, a personal 
direct object and a common noun, after such verbs as 
ask and teach, are the forms of the "double object." 



English Grammar and Analysis 173 

The following will illustrate: 

Compound object: He studies grammar and history. 

A direct and an indirect object: He gave me a book. 
Book is the direct object. 

Object and objective complements: They made him 
captain. 

Personal object and common noun: She taught John 
grammar. He asked me a question. 

John and me are direct objects, not indirect after some 
preposition understood. 

The Objective Complement 

The objective complement is a word or a group of words 
used to complete the predicate and to refer* to the object. 
The objective complement has the same case as the object. 
Like the other complements, the objective may be a word, 
a phrase, or a clause. Illustrations: 

1. They named him John. 

2. They elected him captain. 

3. The public called the man a hero. 

4. We found the boy honest. 

5. He made his face black. 

6. They heard him singing. 

7. They made George king. 

In the above examples it is apparent that the objective 
complement refers to the object in some way or other. 
It indicates (1) a new name given; (2) a new title, or 
office, conferred; (3) a change made, or effected, in the 
object; (4) an especial state of activity or being found, 
made, or heard in the object word. John and hero are 
names given; captain and king are offices given; honest 
and black are changes made; singing is the activity heard 
in the object. 

Often the objective complement is called the factitive 
object; i. e., an object made from some other thing. The 
name oblique object is also used for the objective com- 
plement. 

The Phrase as Objective Complement: 

1. We saw him go. 



174 A Teachers' Manual 

2. They know him to be honest. 

3. We took him to be a sailor. 

4. The firemen found the flames beyond control. 

5. He worked himself out of condition. 

Sentences 4 and 5 are prepositional phrases filling the 
office of objective complement. Like any other complement, 
the objective may be compound. 

The Clause as Objective 'Complement: 

Let it be who it may. 

This construction is unusual. See page 7 for discussion 
of the above sentence. 



CHAPTER V. 

Parsing 

Parsing should never be made an end in itself. If it is 
judiciously practiced, it leads to an unfolding of the 
student's mind in such a manner as to stimulate his 
analytical faculties. Its pedagogical value lies in the fact 
that tnere is no specified way of attack or approach to a 
word under consideration. In other sciences there are 
rules, laws, and formulas to dispose of an instance pre- 
sented, but in parsing a pupil must use his judgment and 
powers of association in determining what office is to be 
assigned to a part of speech. 

It often happens that parsing may degenerate into a 
mere word-saying, or mechanical process. If the word 
book is clearly parsed as the subject of a sentence, and if 
the members of the class entirely understand the con- 
struction, it is a dreary waste of time for the teacher 
to continue parsing other words as dog, cat, shoe, etc., in 
exactly the same office in the sentence. When a con- 
struction is thoroughly clear to a class, it is high time 
that the teacher provides new examples. Then again, 
the youth who rattles off his knowledge of the word 
Time in 

"Then, Time, let not a drop be spilt 
Hand me the cup whene'er thou wilt," 

by calling Time a "noun, common, neuter," etc., exemplifies 
the results of mechanical parsing. The best means for 
remedying the evil is for the teacher to use only such 
examples as will provoke thought. Selections and excerpts 
should be of such a quality that they could not be dis- 
posed of without the application of no little thought. Then, 
if the exercise is prosecuted thoughtfully, it will become 
a valuable pedagogical asset towards developing the 
student's mind. 
It seems unwise for the pupil, in writing his parsing 
175 



176 A Teachers' Manual 

exercise, to abbreviate the terms used. By so doing he 
falls into careless habits that will prove hard to break. 
One of the most unpleasant lapses in the composition work 
of the beginner is his set tendency to abbreviate. Let 
the pupil spell out all the terminology in his parsing. If 
there is insufficient time to have his manuscript carefully 
and neatly prepared, then the exercise is certainly out 
of place. 

The object of this brief chapter is to afford the teacher 
models for parsing the different parts of speech and of 
their various forms. Yet a word of caution should be 
offered at this point. All through the grammar grades 
it is far more important for the pupil to be trained in the 
synthetical side of grammar than in the analytical. Sen- 
tence construction for the sake of real, organic expression, 
should be the great objective. Far too much analytical 
grammar has been forced into the child in the grammar 
grades, and wisely may he wonder what it is all for. The 
enthusiasm of no teacher should ever lead him to forget 
that the grammar exists for the language and not the 
language for the grammar. 

Models for Parsing Nouns 

Parsing consists in giving the classification, the modifica- 
tion, and the syntax, of words. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words, — health, peace and competence. 

— Pope 

Reason's is a noun, common; neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, possessive case; it indicates possession 
over pleasure. 

Pope is a noun, proper; masculine gender, third person, 
singular number; it has either the nominative or the 
objective case form; it has no syntax. 

It hardly seems logical to supply any syntax for this 
noun Pope. One might imagine the completed sentence 
to be, "This was written by Pope," or "Pope wrote this," 
etc. In fact, there is no end to the number of sentences 
that might be framed to include Pope. Hence, it is deemed 



English Grammar and Analysis 177 

quite inadvisable to offer any syntax for the word or to 
ascribe to it any definite case. Only the case-form should 
be pointed out. 

"Then, Time, let not a drop be spilt: 
Hand me the cup whene'er thou wilt; 
'Tis thy rich stirrup-cup to me; 
I'll drink it down right smilingly." 

Time is a noun, proper; masculine gender because 
personified; second person, singular number, nominative 
case; it is independent by direct address. 

Drop is a noun, common; neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, -objective case; it is the object comple- 
ment and may be called the objective subject of be spilt. 

Cup is a noun, common; neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, objective case; it is the direct object 
of Hand. 

Stirrup-cup is a compound noun, common; neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, nominative case; it is the 
attribute, or predicate complement after is. 

The above stanza is from Lanier's The Stirrup-Cup. 

Verbs 

They shall pursue until thou perish. 

Shall pursue is a verb, regular; principal parts: present, 
pursue; past, pursued; past participle, pursued; intransi- 
tive; indicative mode, future tense; third person, plural 
number, to agree with its subject They. 

Perish is a verb, regular; principal parts: present, perish; 
past, perished; past participle, perished; intransitive; sub- 
junctive mode, present tense; second person, singular num- 
ber, to agree with thou. 

He giveth His beloved sleep. 

Giveth is a verb, irregular; principal parts: present, 
give; past, gave; past participle, given; transitive, active 
voice; indicative mode, present tense, solemn form; third 
person, singular number, to agree with He. 



178 A Teachers' Manual 

Infinitives 

To love is to obey. 

To love is an infinitive phrase from the verb love; love 
is regular; principal parts: present, love; past, loved; past 
participle, loved; intransitive; present tense; the phrase 
fills the office of a noun, the subject of is. 

He began to think that she should best provide for his 
safety. 

To think is an infinitive phrase from the verb think; 
think is irregular; principal parts: present, think; past, 
thought; past participle, thought; transitive, active voice; 
present tense; the phrase fills the office of a noun, the 
object of the verb began. 

He seemed to be sick. 

To be is an infinitive phrase from the verb be; be is 
irregular; principal parts: present, am; past, was; past 
participle, been; intransitive; present tense; the phrase is 
used as the introductory part of the attribute complement 
after seemed. 

I knew him to be a sailor. 

To be is parsed as it is in the preceding sentence with 
the exception of the syntax; here the phrase is used to 
introduce the objective complement, having, him as an ob- 
ject-subject and sailor as an object-attribute. 

It has been stated elsewhere that sailor is not the object 
of to be, but it is in the objective case because it agrees in 
thought with him. 

For him to say that is folly. 

To say is an infinitive phrase from the verb say; say 
is irregular; principal parts: present, say; past, said; pasf 
participle, said; transitive, active voice; present tense; 
the phrase is used as an adjective modifier of him. 

He studies to learn. 

To learn is an infinitive phrase from the verb learn; 
learn is regular; principal parts: present, learn; past 
learned; past participle, learned; intransitive; present 
tense; the phrase is used as an adverbial modifier of 
studies. 



English Grammar and Analysis 179 

Participles 

My going there depends upon his consent. 

Going is a participle from the verb go; go is irregular; 
principal parts: present, go; past, went; past participle, 
gone; intransitive; present participle; going is a noun 
participle, used as the basis in the subject phrase of de- 
pends. 

The men ran shouting. 

Shouting is a participle from the verb shout; shout is 
regular; principal parts: present, shout; past shouted; past 
participle, shouted; intransitive; present participle; shout- 
ing is an adjective participle, the attribute complement 
after ran. 

It is important for the pupil to remember this law for 
participles: Participles used to complete verbs denoting 
rest or motion are attributes. 

Examples: He sat thinking. 
He came rushing. 
He walked about boasting. 
The city lies sleeping. 

See p. 132. 

People, crushed by law, have no' hope but from power. — 
Burke. 

Crushed is a participle from the verb crush; crush is 
regular; principal parts: present, crush; past, crushed; past 
participle, crushed; transitive, passive; past participle; 
crushed is an adjective participle limiting People. 

Knowledge is the knowing that we cannot know.— 
Emerson. 

Knowing is a participle from the verb know; know is 
irregular; principal parts: present, know; past, known; 
past participle, know; transitive, active; present par- 
ticiple; knowing is a noun, participle used as the basis of 
the attribute complement. 

Strictly speaking, he is very dissolute. 

Speaking is a participle from the verb speak; speak is 
irregular; principal parts: present, speak; past, spoke; past 
participle, spoken; intransitive; present participle; speak- 



180 A Teachers' Manual 

ing is used independent and has the construction of an ad- 
jective. 

Adjectives 

A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

Dainty is an adjective, descriptive; positive degree, 
dainty; comparative, more or less dainty, daintior; su- 
perlative, daintiest, most or least dainty; dainty modifies 
plant. 

A is an adjective, definitive; indefinite article; has no 
comparison; A limits plant. 

Some men are born great. 

Some is an adjective, definitive; indefinite; has no com- 
parison; limits men. 

Great is an adjective, descriptive; positive degree, great; 
comparative, greater, more or less great; superlative, 
greatest, most or least great; great is an attribute com- 
plement after are born. 

Ten men see what I see. 

Ten is an adjective; definitive; numeral; has no com- 
parison; limits men. 

He lives in the room above. 

Above is an adjective, definitive; has no comparison; 
limits room; above is usually a preposition or an adverb. 

The moon is up. 

Up is an adjective, definitive; has no comparison; up is 
an attribute after is; it is usually a preposition or an 
adverb. 

Pronouns 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 
Bird thou never wert. 
Thee is a pronoun, personal; solemn form; its ante- 
cedent is spirit; masculine gender; second person, singular 
number; objective case, the object of the preposition to. 

Note: The full context of Shelley's To a Skylark justifies 
the masculine gender in the parsing. 



English Grammar and Analysis 181 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ? 
Ye is a pronoun, personal; solemn form; its antecedent 
is the persons addressed; common gender, second person, 
plural number; nominative case, as the subject of know. 

He did what was right. 

What is a pronoun, relative; its antecedent is something 
understood; neuter gender, third person, singular number; 
nominative case, the subject of was. 

Whatever is, is right. 

Whatever is a pronoun, relative, compound; its ante- 
cedent is understood; neuter gender, third person, singular 
number; nominative case, the subject of is. 

Note: It may also be parsed as an indefinite pronoun, 
with the above modifications. 

Many are called, but few are chosen. 

Many is an adjective pronoun; antecedent, persons 
spoken of; common gender, third person, plural number; 
nominative case, the subject of are called. 

He hurt himself. 

Himself is a personal pronoun, compound, reflexive; an- 
tecedent is He; masculine gender, third person, singular 
number; objective case, the object of hurt. 

He will do it himself. 

Himself is a personal pronoun, compound, emphatic; an- 
tecedent is He; masculine gender, third person, singular 
number; nominative case, in apposition with He. 

Prepositions 

Can storied urn, or animated bust, 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? 
To is a preposition, simple; it shows relation between its 
object mansion and can call. 

As to this he said much. 

As to is a phrase-preposition, which shows relation be- 
tween this and said. 



182 A Teachers] Manual 

He ran out of the room. 

Out of is a phrase preposition, which shows relation be- 
tween room and ran. 

He came from among the crowd. 

From is a preposition, simple; it shows relation between 
the phrase among the crowd and came. 

Among is a preposition, simple; it governs crowd and is 
loosely related to from. 

For him to do that is treason. 

For is a preposition, introductory; it governs him, and 
serves to introduce the phrase. 

To arms! to arms! 

To is a preposition, simple; it governs arms, and intro- 
duces an independent phrase. 

He was about to go. 

About is a preposition, simple; it governs its object to 
go, and introduces the attribute complement. 

Conjunctions 

Silver and gold have I none. 

And is a conjunction, co-ordinate, copulative; joins the 
members of the compound predicate. 

Art may err, but Nature cannot miss. 

But is a conjunctive, co-ordinate, adversative; joins the 
two members. 

Either the one or the other shall satisfy the demands oi 
justice. 

Either ... or are conjunctions, co-ordinate, correlative, 
alternative; they join the members of the subject. 

Note: If either conjunction is parsed separately, it may 
be treated as above with the exception that it is one of the 
correlates. For example: Either is a conjunction, co- 
ordinate, correlative, alternative; it is the first term of the 
correlates, and helps to connect the compound subject. 



English Grammar and Analysis 183 

Adverbs 

How fading are the joys we dote upon! — No iris. 
How is an adverb of degree; has no comparison; limits 
fading. 

He came only to be seen. 

Only is an adverb, intensive; has no comparison; limits 
to be seen. 

They live just beyond the river. 

Just is an adverb, of degree; has no comparison; limits 
beyond. 

The train stops only at the station. — R. & K. 
Only is an adverb, intensive; has no comparison; limits 
at station. 

The position was most advantageous. 
Most is an adverb of degree; positive degree, much; 
comparative, more; superlative, most; limits ad van jgeous. 

He therefore returned promptly. 

Therefore is an adverb, modal, illative; has no cou^mri- 
son; limits returned. 

The army obeyed simply because the order was given. 

Simply is an adverb, intensive; in this meaning it has no 
comparison; modifies the clause "because the order was 
given." 

Interjections 

Alas! the hour was too sad. 

Alas is an interjection; it is independent. 

Shall we go? Yes. 

Yes is an adverb, modal, affirmative, has no comparison; 
it is here a sentence-word. 

By sentence-word is meant an expression equivalent in 
meaning to a sentence. 



184 A Teachers' Manual 

Expletives 

Now, let us return. 

Now is an expletive; it is originally an adverb of time, 
without comparison; it introduces the sentence, and is in- 
dependent. 

Why, he will never do it. 

Why is an expletive; it is originally an adverb of cause, 
without comparison; it introduces the sentence, and is in- 
dependent. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Letter Writing 

The Business Letter. — This type of letter offers some 
variety in form. Since the word business may be applied 
broadly, the letter may range all the way from the stereo- 
typed formal business letter to a friendly note about a 
personal affair of business. 

Many persons writing a business letter often err by 
thinking that such must ,be made brief and brusque by 
means of abbreviations and omissions until the finished 
product more nearly resembles a series of stenographic 
signs than what it was intended to be. They mistake, too, 
in their impression that this type of letter should put 
aside the ordinary courtesies of life. A business letter 
should never be lacking in politeness, nor should it show 
undue evidences of haste. By this means of communication 
the writer clearly indicates his estimate of the recipient, 
and at the same time reveals himself. One should never 
be in a hurry with one's letters. 

The plan of the formal business letter shows six di- 
visions: 1, the heading; 2, the inside address; 3, the salu- 
tation; 4, the body; 5, the complimentary close; 6, the sig- 
nature. Each of these requires special consideration. 

The Heading 

The Heading. — Usually this is placed on one line about 
an inch and a half from the top edge. It is composed thus: 

Athens, Ohio, November 28, 1910. 

It should contain no abbreviations, and should be punc- 
tuated as is indicated above. But suppose a street number 
is necessary; then the heading will be written in two lines: 

36 West Union Street, Athens, Ohio, 
November 28, 1910. 
185 



186 A Teachers' Manual 

In case there is a need for three lines because of the 
length of the different items, the heading may have this 
form: 

36 Garfield Avenue, 
Columbus, Ohio, 
November 28, 1910. 

Or this may be placed in such a way that the three terms 
of the heading follow the law of indention intended for the 
paragraphing of the letter: 

36 Garfield Avenue, 
Columbus, Ohio, 

November 28, 1910. 

Here Columbus is set in under the street number the 
same distance that November is set in under Columbus. 
This space, as was said, is the distance of indention. 

The heading having two lines may be written as above, 
or the second line may be begun under the first according 
to the law of indention, thus: 

36 West Union Street, Athens, Ohio, 
November 28, 1910. 

Often the writer wishes to indicate his rural route num- 
ber. This is best placed as follows: 

R. F. D. 1, Athens, Ohio, 
November 28, 1910. 
Or, 

R. F. D. 1, Athens, Ohio, 
November 28, 1910. 

Perhaps "R. F. D." is the one exception to the rule that 
no abbreviation had better be used in the heading. In all 
the above headings except the last two, no period is used 
except after 1910, the close of the heading. There is no 
comma used after the name of the month to separate it 
from the day of the month. Such combinations as "th," 
"nd," or "d," should not be used after the number of the 
day of the month in the heading as here given. There are 
certain possible forms wherein these are occasionally re- 
tained, but the general business letter has little or nothing 



English Grammar and Analysis 187 

to do with them. The established forms, not the excep- 
tional ones, are the standards to be followed. 

The Inside Address 

The Inside Address. — This should be placed on the line 
or one space below the last line of the heading. It may 
consist of two or of three lines. This is the commonest 
form: 

Messrs. D. C. Heath and Company, 
Chicago, Illinois. 

Three lines would be put in the following manner: 
Messrs. D. C. Heath and Company, 
367 Wabash Avenue, 
Chicago, Illinois. 

Here the second line is indented under the abbreviation 
Messrs. in accordance with the plan of indention to be fol- 
lowed in the letter. The word Chicago is set in just twice 
as far as "367." It is important to remember that the 
length of indention, that is, the length a term is set in from 
the margin, is regulated by the second line in the inside 
address. If one person, and not a business company, is ad- 
dressed, the form may be placed: 
Mr. Charles Jameson, 

Boston, Massachusetts. 

Or, 
Mr. Charles Jameson, 

371 Tremont Street, 

Boston, Massachusetts. 

In the inside address it is well to avoid abbreviations just 
as far as possible. The first line of the address is placed 
exactly at the edge of the margin. The length that this 
first line of the address is set in indicates throughout the 
letter the length of the margin at the left of the letter. 

Many business letters now show this form: 
Mr. Charles Jameson, 
371 Tremont Street, 
Boston, Massachusetts. 

Here there is no indention observed. 



188 A Teachers' Manual 

The Salutation 

The Salutation. — In addressing one the words Dear Sir 
are used; for several persons Dear Sirs or Gentlemen. 
Gentlemen is better used in business letters wherein some 
acquaintance exists between the one who receives the letter 
and the one writing it; Dear Sirs is the form most em- 
ployed. "My dear Sir" is more formal, or ceremonial, than 
"Dear ,Sir." In England the custom is the reverse of this. 
The term "Sir" should not be used alone. "Sir" should be 
capitalized. In "My dear Sir" the second word is not 
capitalized. Dear Madam or My dear Madam is the saluta- 
tion given to either the married or the unmarried woman. 
The plurals may be written Dear Mesdames or My dear 
Mesdames. However, many prefer Dear Madams or My 
dear Madams as the form corresponding to Dear Sirs and 
My dear Sirs. 

The salutation should be followed by a colon in case the 
body of the letter is begun on the line below; it should be 
followed by the colon and the dash in case the body of the 
letter is begun on the same line. Sometimes the comma 
is used in short, informal business letters. The dash is 
used with it in case the letter begins on the same line. 
Here are the usual forms: 

Dear Sir: 

The body of the letter. 
Dear ;Sir: — The letter begins. 

Dear Sir, 

The letter begins. 
Dear Sir, — .Letter begins. 
My dear Sir: 

Letter begins. 
My dear Sirs: 

Letter begins. 
Gentlemen : 

Letter begins. 

The body of the letter does not necessarily begin under 
the colon; in the first example as well as in the second, 



English Grammar and Analysis 189 

third, fourth, and fifth examples, the letter begins a little 
nearer the front rather than immediately under or after 
the colon. This is done to follow the law of indention. The 
first line of the body of the letter should be set in just as 
far as one intends the paragraph indention to extend; the 
second line of the inside address will show this. Should 
the first line of the body of the letter be placed on the same 
line with the salutation, of course no indention is used. The 
formality of the salutation is always observed. 

The Body of the Letter 

The Body of the Letter. — This should be clear, brief, and 
courteous. A business affair should first of all be so en- 
tirely clear as to exclude the possibility of error. Then it 
should be put in a brief manner — not blunt, however. A 
busy man or a busy company does not wish to use time in 
reading mere words. Yet abbreviated terms and half- 
formed sentences defeat brevity and the idea of conciseness 
just as quickly as does wordiness. The disagreeable prac- 
tice on the part of some by beginning a letter thus, "Yours 
at hand, would say in reply," etc., has led beginners to 
think that this sort of garbled sentence Is really business- 
like. Last of all, the courteous tone should never be lack- 
ing. However brief a letter may be, the writer of it must 
never forget that it always pays to be gentlemanly in 
manner. Courtesy in business correspondence is not only 
good policy, but it is also an obligation. 

The paragraphs of the body, as a rule, had better be 
brief. The law of paragraphing should be carefully ob- 
served. The paragraph divisons must be clearly shown to 
the eye by uniform indention. Although one is usually told 
not to begin a business letter with the pronoun I, its use 
is preferable to an awkward attempt to avoid it. 

If such expressions as, "Hoping that this communication 
will be given immediate attention," and "Trusting that I 
may hear from you at once," are used to close a letter, lot 
them be placed in a separate paragraph. The best business 
letters are rapidly doing away with these unnecessary con- 
clusions. It would be well to remember that such stereo- 



190 A Teachers' Manual 

typed mannerisms should, if possible, be omitted. In case 
of their use the following form may be employed: 

Hoping that this communication will be given immediate 
attention, I am 

Yours truly, 

Signature. 

A comma is placed after attention, but no mark is placed 
after am or remain. The term am is used when no ac- 
quaintance exists between the persons engaged in the cor- 
respondence; remain, when there is some acquaintance. 

Hoping is indented because it begins a separate para- 
graph. 

The Complimentary Close 

The Complimentary Close. — First of all, an abbreviation 
should never here be used. The commonest close for the 
business letter is Yours truly, Yours very truly, Very truly 
yours, Yours respectfully. Only the first word of these 
phrases is capitalized; the remaining ones are written with 
a small letter. These expressions should be commenced on 
the line beneath the last line of the body of the letter about 
the middle of the sheet of paper; thus: 

Yours truly, 
Signature. 

A comma is always used after the complimentary close. 
Yours respectfully is not generally used in this kind of 
letter. It is reserved for the type indicating some personal 
relation between those concerned; or upon an occasion of 
a person's writing to a committee, a board of control, or 
to a person prominent in the affairs of life. Often the be- 
ginner will confuse the terms respectfully and respectively; 
if he is not sure of his ground, let him avoid both. 

The Signature. — This should be written clearly so that a 
man of business will know whether his reply should be 
addressed to a Mr., a Mrs., or a Miss. The man signs his 
name in his usual business manner, omitting, of course, 
the abbreviation "Mr." The unmarried woman puts Miss 
in parenthetical marks in front of her name. The widow 



English Grammar and Analysis 191 

uses Mrs., in parenthetical marks, before her name, without 
employing her husband's name. The married woman uses 
her name without the Mrs. or her husband's full name, 
then immediately beneath in parenthesis marks writes 
Mrs. before her husband's name. However, it is well to 
remember that usage differs considerably on the types of 
signature employed by the married woman or by the 
widow. Common sense must be the final arbiter even 
where custom often rules with a strong hand. 

The signatures explained above are illustrated in the 
following: 

(1) T. J. Davison. 

(2) (Miss) Mary Johnson. 

(3) (Mrs.) Anna Williams. 

(4) Gertrude Findlay, 

(Mrs.^ Henry J. Findlay.) 

Signature (3) is the form used by a widow. 
Below is a specimen letter illustrating the various forms 
explained by the foregoing paragraphs: 

Athens, Ohio, November 28, 1910. 
Mr. Charles Snyder, 
Springfield, Ohio. 
Dear ,Sir: 

From your letter of yesterday I infer that you and your 
assistants will be able to carry out the contract and finish 
the work in good time. I am very desirous of having the 
improvements completed by the beginning of next year. 
If you think of anything likely to interfere, please let me 
know at once. 

Yours truly, 

Henry Jameson. 

Stationery. — In the end the best writing material is the 
cheapest. It is a false economy for one to write one's 
letters on a poor quality of paper. A person is largely 
known by the letter he sends. The impression made by 
cheap, inferior-looking writing paper, upon which is put 
a carelessly formed and written letter, is always an un- 



192 A Teachers' Manual 

favorable one. As a rule, the letter stands as the sole 
representative of the person seeking a position and the 
possible employer. The latter makes up his mind con- 
cerning the personality of the writer, his fitness for a 
position, his evidence or lack of neatness, accuracy, cour- 
tesy, and of numerous other traits. 

If a person is engaged in business or in professional 
work, he usually has a letter-head appropriately printed 
or embossed. He will use envelopes to correspond. The 
question as to the kind of stationery to use is with him 
settled. But the person who has no regular letter-heads 
and who does not use a typewriter need be careful in 
his selection of paper. It is preferable for him to conduct 
his business correspondence on a good quality of "box 
paper," having suitable envelopes. This is the regular 
sheet of paper. Its color should be white, cream, or a 
delicate granite tint; fancy colors should be avoided. 

If the business letter put on the folio sheet is sufficient 
in length to cover two pages, the third page is written 
upon after the first. If it is long enough for four pages, 
these are taken up in regular order — first, second, third, 
fourth. The page should not be inverted or written upon 
in a cross-wise fashion. Like a book, the lines should all 
run the same way. Promiscuous tablet paper that does 
or does not match the envelope is not the most desirable. 
It fails to present the best appearance. A letter should 
not be written with a pencil, or with inks other than black 
or a standard writing fluid. 

Folding. — If the large letter-head sheet is used, it should 
be folded (1) by bringing over the lower half of the letter 
until the edge almost reaches the top edge; (2) then by 
taking the right hand part of the once-folded paper and 
folding it one third over; (3) by bringing the left part 
of tne paper over so that it comes to a half-inch from the 
other folded edge. This last flap will be the open, or loose 
flap. The envelope is held with the open side up and the 
open flap to the right; the letter, with the open flap up 



English Grammar and Analysis 193 

and the open end toward the left, is thus inserted into 
the envelope. 

If a folio sheet is used, it is folded over once; the 
envelope is held as is described above, and the letter is 
inserted with the folded edges downward and toward the 
left. 

Points Demanding Care 

The Inside Address. — In case there is not sufficient space 
for the first line, an abbreviation of such words as com- 
pany, manufacturing, secretary, may be made as a last 
resort. Titles such as Professor, General, Doctor, Major, 
President, etc., should not be abbreviated in the first line 
of tnis address. Of course Mr. and Mrs. are always used 
as abbreviations* 

The Salutation. — Again titles should not be abbreviated, 
or wriicen as in My dear Prof. The word Friend is usually 
avoided. One would not write Dear Friend; he would put 
it Dear Charles. Sometimes a poorly written letter will 
omit the salution or attempt to combine it with the first 
line of the inside address; thus, Dear Charles G. Richard- 
son. This type of mistake should not be excused. 

The Body. — In this division a variety of offenses occur. 
In the first place the writer should scrupulously avoid 
abbreviated and half-formed sentences. As has been 
stated, it is not business-like to have the leading sentences 
on Las order: "Yours at hand, in reply would say that the 
request will be given early attention." The phrase Yours 
at hand is formless and unnatural; the verb would say has 
no subject. Yours hardly means Your letter; then if it 
should, there is no verb expressed with the subject. 
Another mistake in the opening sentence of a letter occurs 
because of the improper placing of participles, thus: "Re- 
plying to your letter of recent date, would say," etc. Here 
the suDJect of would say should be expressed. Again: "Re- 
plying to your communication of the 19th, it was found 
that the materials have all been shipped." Here Replying 



194 A Teachers' Manual 

has no word to modify; it cannot be referred to it because 
it did not do the replying. This sentence may be given 
form as follows: "Replying to your communication of the 
19th, we find," etc. Then, the use of beg followed by an 
infinitive is not idiomatic. "We beg to say," etc., should 
read "We beg the privilege of saying;" beg should be com- 
pleted „y an appropriate noun rather than by an infinitive. 
The surest formula for avoiding some lapse in the initial 
sentence is to make such as grammatically - complete as 
any other sentence in the letter. If it is necessary to open 
the sentence with the pronoun I, let that be done rather 
than have some artificial and unidiomatic expression in 
an effort at substitution. 

The Complimentary Close. — Among the incorrect expres- 
sions are such as "Yours Resp.," "Yours, etc.," "Yours," 
"Yrs.," "And oblige," "Your most obedient servant," "Yours 
respectively," "Yrs. truly," "Truly." 

Another Form of Business Letter 

A second type of business letter is often used in case 
of acquaintance existing between the persons concerned. 
In this form the heading is placed just as in the first form 
already discussed. The inside address is not given its 
usual position. The salutation is varied slightly in that it 
generally uses the proper name; e. g., "My dear Mr. 
Rochester," "My dear Professor Smythe," "My dear 
Doctor Ramsay." The body of the letter conforms to what 
has been said above under the first type. The compli- 
mentary close usually employs these forms: "Very truly 
yours," "Sincerely yours," "Respectfully yours." In case 
of correspondence between members of some secret organi- 
zation and relating to its work, "Fraternally yours," may 
be used. "Yours truly" is the exceptional close in this 
letter. The signature is given as in the first letter above. 
Immediately on the next line below, the inside address is 
placed, beginning at the left margin just as if it were 
placed before the salutation. It is written as in the regular 



. English Grammar and Analysis 195 

business letter. The following letter is an illustration of 

the various points discussed: 

Athens, Ohio, January 12, 1910. 

My dear Professor Smythe: 

In reply to your letter, I am pleased to say that I 

shall be glad to serve as judge on the contest indicated. If 

you will write me the particulars as to grading and the 

standards to be considered, I shall be greatly indebted. 

Thanking you for the courtesy shown me, I remain 

Very truly yours, 

,-> * T rt ,, A. E. James. 

Professor J. O. Smythe, 

Des Moines, Iowa. 

The Formal Note 

The Formal Note. — The formal note has nothing in com- 
mon with the business letters already discussed. It is used 
as the correct medium of expression through which a 
formal invitation is given and through which the reply 
is indicated, 

It contains no heading, no inside address, no salutation, 
no complimentary close, no signature. The place and date 
are written below the body of the note at the left edge of 
the margin. The only abbreviations used in the entire 
note are Mr. and Mrs. All figures are spelled out except 
the numbers of streets and of houses. 

Throughout this note the third person is used. The 
terms I, your, your company, and other forms of the first 
and second persons are avoided. Invitations issued on a 
large scale by a class organization or by a college may use, 
however, the words your company inasmuch as it is im- 
possible to have the names of those addressed inscribed 
in the invitation. The usual forms followed are seen in 
these examples: T 

Mr. Mason Borden requests the pleasure of Mr. Ham- 
lin Lewis's presence at a reception to be given at his home 
Tuesday evening, January twenty-fourth, at eight o'clock, 
in honor of Doctor Charles Edward Brighton, of Chicago. 
34 East Temple Avenue, 

January fifteenth. 



196 A Teachers' Manual 

ii 
Mr. Hamlin Lewis accepts with pleasure the kind in- 
vitation of Mr. Mason Borden for Tuesday evening, January 
twenty-fourth, at eight o'clock. 
January sixteenth. 

It should be observed in these notes that the name of the 
town or city is not used unless the writer is sending his 
invitation to another town. There should be nothing 
archaic or stilted in the composition of the body; the word- 
ing should be free and natural. Other forms might be 
discussed, but such belong to the province of etiquette 
rather than to English composition. 

A formal invitation issued by a club or society might 
use the words your company according to the following 
model: 

The Thoreau Club requests the pleasure of your company 
at its opening meeting, held in Wemble Hall, Friday even- 
ing, January twenty-seventh, at seven-thirty o'clock. 

The Informal Note 
The Informal Note. — This type uses the first and second 
persons and avoids formalities of all kinds. It contains, 
as a rule, no headings, no inside address. The salutation 
is given in terms of familiarity justified by the acquaint- 
anceship of the persons. A complimentary close, followed 
by the signature, is used. The place and date generally 
are given as in the formal note. If the salutation is quite 
informal, it is presumed that the signature will be such 
also. The following forms may serve as types: 

I 
My dear Mr. James: 

A friend of mine, Mr. Charles Holiday, of Chicago, 
will be my guest next Friday, and I wish him to meet you. 
I shall be very glad if you can take the time from your 
studies so as to spend the evening with us. We shall be 
disappointed without you. 

Sincerely yours, 

Herbert Henderson. 
Monday evening 



English Grammar and Analysis 197 

II 
Dear Fred, 

Come over to my study next Monday evening. George 
will be there, and possibly Grayson. • There are many 
things we wish to talk about. Do not fail us. 

Corciially yours, 
Will. 
Saturday. 

Sometimes a writer of this informal note will use a 
heading as in the business letter. This form, though popu- 
lar some years ago : , is rarely used today. 

The Letter of Friendship. — In this the position given to 
the heading, the inside address, the salutation, the com- 
plimentary close, and the signature is the same as that of 
the informal note. The same general wording of the dif- 
ferent forms is observed. The salutation is appropriately 
expressed in accordance with the relation existing between 
the persons concerned. A similar principle guides in form- 
ing the complimentary close and in the formality or the 
informality of the signature. 

An informal letter: 

Dear Harrison: 

I had a talk with 'Mr. Blank concerning the affair you 
and I discussed the other day. He is settled in his views, 
and will concede little or nothing. If you wish me to press 
the matter, let me know at once. 

Tuesday I had a letter from Michaelson ; he wished to 
be remembered to you. He spoke of possibly coming 
through this section on his way to the West. 

Sincerely yours, 

Charles Levere. 
Henley, 

January twentieth. 

Throughout all these notes there must be no savor of 
the stilted forms borrowed from the traditional letter- 
writer. The writer should allow his own personality to 
show through any note or letter, no difference how con- 



198 A Teachers' Manual 

ventional the form. The student should cultivate an ease 
of expression, a variety of sentence formation, and a 
flexibility of manner. By so doing he will perhaps escape 
being merely a mechanical letter-writer. 

A note delivered by a friend should never be sealed. 

In writing to an acquaintance or to a stranger for some 
favor, one should enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope. 

The Superscription 

The Superscription, or Address on the envelope. — The 
first line should be across the middle of the envelope so 
as to leave a trifle more space at the left of the line than 
at the right. In case an envelope of more than ordinary 
lengh is employed, a greater space is allowed at the left 
than at the right. The succeeding two or three lines of 
the address are indented according to some standard, or 
they may be written one under the other in such a way 
as to have a uniform margin at the left. Sometimes the 
address is so arranged as to obtain symmetrical extending 
of the lines at the right; here the object is to have the 
succeeding lines project an equal distance beyond the ones 
immediately above. Example (3) illustrates this. 

Ihe three usual forms are illustrated by the following: 

(1) 
Mr. Charles G. Monroe, 
Upper Alton, 
Illinois. 
(2) 
Mr. Charles H. Graham, 
280 Fourth Street, 
Portland, Maine. 

(3) 
Mr. F. V. Stearns, 

Jackson, 

Mississippi. 

In each of the above examples all the punctuation may 
be omitted except the period following abbreviations and 



English Grammar and Analysis 199 

the comma separating different elements of an address, as 
the city and the state, when on the same line. The ten- 
dency to omit unnecessary marks of punctuation in the 
address is now prevailing. Either style of punctuation is 
correct. A rural delivery number is indicated as follows: 

(1) 
Mr. James B. Gray 
R. F. D. 2 
Fremont, Ohio 

(2) 
Mr. James B. Gray 
R. F. D. 2 

Fremont, Ohio 

(3) 
Mr. James B. Gray, 
R. F. D. 2, 
Fremont, Ohio. 
Number (3) shows the punctuated form. 

In case the name of the county is needed it may be 
written according to these forms: 

(1) 
Mr. William Ball 
Chestertown 
Erie County 
Pennsylvania 

(2) 
Mr. William Ball 
R. F. D. 1 

Chestertown 

Erie County, Pennsylvania 

(3) 
Mr. William Ball 
Chestertown, Erie County 
Pennsylvania 

Although it is not incorrect to place the name of the 
county at the lower corner out to the left of the main 



200 A Teachers' Manual 

part of the address, yet it mars the symmetry of appear- 
ance and fails to add any convenience. 

Such words as "For" and "To" before the first line of 
the superscription are needless. 

Titles should not be multiplied. The word Professor 
and Principal should not be abbreviated; Superintendent, 
because of its length, may be abbreviated. Instead of 
using two titles as "Rev. Dr. James Churchill," it is better 
to write "The Rev. James Churchill, D. D." 



CHAPTER VII. 

Troublesome Words 

What | 

What may be used as (1) an adjective, (2) as adverb, 
(3) a relative pronoun, (4) a noun, (5) an interrogative 
pronoun, (6) an interjection, (7) an expletive, (8) a con- 
junction. 

The Anglo-Saxon of what is hwat, the neuter of hwa, who. 
What, when, where, which, who, why, were originally in- 
terrogatives only. 

Illustrations of what as numbered above: 

1. What man was that? 

2. What with work and what with suffering he was much 
reduced in health and spirits. 

In this sentence the words what limit the verb, and are 
in turn modified by the prepositional phrases respectively 
following them. 

3. He said what he should. 

What has some term understood for its antecedent, and 
is the object of should [say]. 

4. They were construing what? 

5. What did he say? 

6. What! can it be true? 

7. What, Jessica! (Merchant of Venice.) 

The word what in this sentence can hardly be construed 
as an interjection. Its force is similar to well and now, 
used as supernumerary words. 

8. "He helped them what he could." Webster points out 
this use as rare. What has the force of as much as. 

But 

But may be used as (1) an adjective, (2) an adverb, (3) 
a noun, (4) a relative pronoun, (5) a conjunctive adverb, 
(6) a conjunction, (7) a preposition. 

The Anglo-Saxon for but is butan. Its uses were origi- 
nally prepositional and conjunctional. It had the force of 
on the outside, without, except, besides. 

201 



202 A Teachers' Manual 

Illustrations of but as numbered above: 

1. He is but a cbild. 

2. He has but to try. 

3. The orator began most of bis sentences with but. 

4. Tnere is no man of worth, but has a piece of singu- 
larity. 

5. They were not so rash but they respected law. 

6. They were indeed misled, but by no base or selfish 
motive. 

7. All were present but him. 

In sentence 4 and similar constructions, but is usually 
spoken of as a negative relative. Here but is the subject 
of the verb has in the subordinate clause, which it joins to 
man. Such a construction as given in 5 is found in Eng- 
lish, but its occurrence is not frequent. So and but are 
used as correlates; but modifies respected, and joins the 
clause to so. 

Which 

As a relative, which differs from what in that (1) the an- 
tecedent of which may be singular or plural in number, 
and neuter or common in gender, whereas what is usually 
neuter and singular; (2) which is more definite in its 
reference than what. 

Which may be used as (1) an adjective, (2) a relative 
pronoun, (3) an interrogative pronoun, (4) a noun. 

Illustrations : 

1. Which book is that? (Adjective.) 

2. He took the rose, which was red. (Relative pronoun.) 

3. Which did you see? (Interrogative pronoun.) 

4. Give the construction of which in one of the above 
sentences. (Noun.) 

That 
That may be used as (1) a relative pronoun, (2) an ad- 
jective pronoun, (3) an adjective, (4) a conjunction, (5) a 
conjunctive adverb, (6) a noun. 



English Grammar and Analysis 203 

Illustrations: 

1. Air that is impure should not be breathed. (Relative 
pronoun.) 

2. That is true. (Adjective pronoun.) 

3. That child needs help. (Adjective.) 

4. We called now that we might see you alone. (Con- 
junction.) 

5. That he hath wronged me doth appear in this. (Intro- 
ductory conjunction.) 

6. He talked so rapidly that we could not understand 
him. (Conjunctive, adverb.) 

7. That is an interesting word. (Noun.) 

As 

As may be used as (1) an introductory conjunction, (2) 
an adverb, (3) a conjunctive adverb, (4) a part of a phrase 
preposition, (5) a relative pronoun, (6) a noun. 

Illustrations: 

1. This is given as a mark of esteem. (Introductory con- 
junction. Mark is the attribute complement, and is intro- 
duced by as.) 

2. He is as good as he is great. (Adverb.) The second 
as is a conjunctive adverb. 

3. As to this he said much. (Part of a preposition.) 

4. As many as responded were helped. (Relative pro- 
noun.) 

o. As is a short word. (Noun.) 

Than 

Than is a conjunctive adverb. In some idiomatic con- 
structions an occasional writer will treat it as a preposition. 
Than is used after a comparative term and always some 
kind of comparison. It is only in some of the older stylists 
that the use of than approaches the prepositional construc- 
tion. An example is found in Paradise Lost: 

"Which when Beelzebub perceived, than whom 
Satan except, none higher sat." 
The phrase than whom limits higher. 



204 A Teachers' Manual 

In the sentence, "Mary is older than he," than is a con- 
junctive adverb. Of course, than may be used as a noun. 

Any of these words will have a nounal force when used 
as a mere word. This construction will accordingly not 
be given unless there is some unusual noun force in the 
term discussed. 

The 

The may be used as an (1) adjective, (2) an adverb, (3) 
a conjunctive adverb, (4) a noun. 

1. Now is the time. (Adjective.) 

2. The more he studies, the less he seems to know. The 
first the is adverb, the second one is a conjunctive adverb. 

The noun use is illustrated in the first statement made 
under The. 

Before 
. Before may be used as (1) an adverb, (2) a preposition, 
(3) a conjunction, (4) a noun. 

1. He walked before. (Adverb.) 

2. The tree stands before the house. (Preposition.) 

3. Before Abraham was, I am. (Conjunctive adverb.) 

Until 
Until may be used as (1) a preposition, (2) a conjunc- 
tive adverb, (3) a noun. 

1. He walked until the end of the hour. (Preposition.) 

2. They would not leave until the last man was rescued. 
(Conjunctive adverb.) 

In this case until may be iparsed as a preposition with a 
noun clause as its object. The same may be said of Before 
in Sentence 3 under Before. 

Why 

Why may be used as (1) a noun, (2) an adverb, (3) a 
conjunctive adverb, (4) an expletive. 

1. He could not tell the how and the why. (Noun.) 

2. They did not say why they left. (Adverb.) 

3. The boy gave no reason why he ran away. (Conjunc- 
tive adverb.) 

4. Why, he will gain every point. (Expletive.) 



English Grammar and Analysis 205 

Up 

Up is used as (1) an adverb, (2) a preposition, (3) an 
adjective, (4) a noun. 

1. He walked up. (Adverb.) 

2. He walked up the hill. (Preposition.) 

3. The up train leaves soon. (Adjective.) 

4. The moon is up. (Again up may be called an adjec- 
tive. It is often called an adverb in this construction.) 

5. Up with it! (Although up has the force of a verb, it 
is really an ellipsis for some verb, as Raise, lift, etc. 

6. He has his ups and down. (Noun. This colloquial use 
has a plural form with a singular meaning.) 

Out 

Out has the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adjective, (3) a 
noun, (4) a verb, (5) an interjection, (6) part of a preposi- 
tion. 

1. He ran out. (Adverb.) 

2. That is the out wall. (Adjective.) 

3. The question has many ins and outs. (Noun.) 

4. "A king outed from his country." Selden uses out in 
this participial form. It is very unusual to hear or see out 
treated as a verb. 

5. Out upon him! (Interjection.) 

6. The rain fell out of a clear sky. (Out of are used to- 
gether as a phrase preposition.) 

So 

This word may be used as (1) an adverb, (2) a conjunc- 
tion, (3) an interjection, (4) a noun. 

1. So ran the law. (Adverb.) 

2. We are content so he may find a way. (Conjunction.) 

3. So! do not mar things. (Interjection.) 

Like 

Like may be used as (1) a verb, (2) an adjective, (3) an 
adverb, (4) an adjective pronoun, (5) a noun. 

1. He likes his friend. (Verb.) 

2. He is like his brother. (Adjective.) 



206 A Teachers' Manual 

3. He runs like a deer. (Adverb.) 

4. Like produces like. (Adjective pronoun.) 

5. He is a person of strong likes. (Noun.) 

Worth 

This word may be used as (1) a noun. (2) a verb, (3) an 
adjective. 

1. His worth is very dear in my regard. (Noun.) 

2. Woe worth the day. (Verb. The force is be unto, or 
betide.) 

3. The farm is worth much. (Adjective.) 

Lest 

Lest is a conjunction. Sometimes it introduces a noun 
clause as in, "I feared lest I might anger you"; then again, 
it is used to join a subordinate adverbial clause to the prin- 
cipal as in, "Pray lest you enter into temptation." 

If 

If is similar to lest in use. In ""He wondered if you would 
come," if is an introductory conjunction introducing a noun 
clause. In 'He will go, if you desire it," if joins an adver- 
bial clause to will go. If has a noun use in, "There were 
too many ifs to be considered." 



The indefinite article sometimes has an adverbial use. 
In "He had a great many faults," a limits great. This con- 
struction is evolved from an Old English form wherein a 
modified directly many and faults was a genitive plural. 
After the inflections were dispensed with, a took on an ad- 
verbial force. 



CHAPTER VIM. 

A Glossary of Grammatical 
Terms 

Abridgment is the shortening of an expression to some 
grammatical equivalent. "A man of wealth lives yonder" 
may be abridged to "A wealthy man lives yonder." 

An Absolute adjective is an adjective so used that it does 
not have any definite modifying powers. Ex., To be good 
is difficult. 

An Absolute tense is one that indicates time without any 
references to other time expressed or understood. The 
present, the past, the future, are absolute tenses. 

An Abstract noun is the name of a quality taken apart 
from something concrete. Ex., goodness, truth. 

Accidence are the modifications, or properties, of a word. 
This term, if spelled accidents, is by many used instead of 
modifications, uses, properties. It comes from the Latin 
accido, and means to happen, to occur. 

An Active verb is a verb in the active voice. Ex., James 
broke a window. 

The Active voice is that modification of a transitive verb 
which represents the subject as acting upon an object. Ex. ; 
He broke the window. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun 
by describing or defining it. Ex., The red rose is in bloom. 

An Adjective element is a word or group of words limit- 
ing a noun or a pronoun. Ex., A good man. 

An Adjective pronoun is an adjective which fills the of- 
fice of a pronoun. Pronominal adjectives and adjective pro- 
nouns are the same thing. Ex., That is true. 

Adjunct is another term for a modifier. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. It may modify, in addi- 
tion to these parts of speech (a) an infinitive, (b) a par- 

207 



208 A Teachers' Manual 

ticiple, (c) a preposition, (d) a conjunctive adverb,, (e) a 
phrase, (f) a clause, (g) an entire sentence. Examples: 

a. He has but to try. 

b. By turning rapidly, he avoided danger. 

c. He jumped just beyond the mark. 

d. They arrived just as we were leaving. 

e. See Example a above. 

f. He failed simply because he did not try. 

g. He did that only. Certainly you may go. 

Adverbs may be divided into six classes: time, place, 
manner, cause, degree, intensive. In "He came only to 
leave," only is an intensive adverb. 

Adverbial element is a word or group of words filling^he 
office of an adverb. Ex., He came when we called. 

An Adverbial noun is one that denotes such adverbial 
ideas as time, distance, value, measure, direction, quantity, 
manner, place. Ex., He walked a mile. 

An Affix is a <part of a word placed either before or after 
the radical word. Ex., un-true, truth-ful. 

An Agglutinated verb is a verb phrase composed of a 
verb augmented by other parts of speech, usually a prepo- 
sition. Ex., He was thought of. It is better to call of an 
intensive or idiomatic adverb. 

Agreement is the correspondence in number, person, or 
case, one word has with another. This is illustrated in the 
agreement of a verb with its subject in person and number. 

Allegory is a continued metaphor with its subject term 
omitted; it is often a fictitious story in which the language 
is symbolical of some truth. Ex., Every dark cloud has a 
silver lining. 

Alliteration consists in beginning successive words with 
the same letter. The term is also used in case successive 
syllables begin with the same letter. Ex., Dark, damp, 
dismal days. 

Ambiguity is doubtfulness as to which of two meanings 
is intended. Ex., The Indian here the settler slew. 

An Americanism is a term used only in America. Ex., 
locate as an intransitive verb: He has located on Main 
street. 



English Grammar and Analysis 209 

An Anacoluthon is an example of false syntax wherein 
the first part of the construction does not correctly unite 
with the last part. Ex., Passing along the road, beautiful 
trees were seen. (It would appear that the trees did the 
passing.) 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements. 

An Anglicism is a term used only in England. Ex., lift 
for elevator. 

An Anomaly in grammar is a term formed in an irregular 
manner. Ex., news from the adjective new with the plural 
s to get a noun in the singular. 

An Antecedent is the term for which a pronoun is used. 
Ex., Here is the boy who will go. 

Anticlimax is the reverse of climax. Terms are suc- 
cessively arranged so that the weakest comes last. Ex., He 
loved his daughter next to his pipe. 

Antithesis is that figure in which contrasted terms are 
given usually in balanced form. Ex., War slays its thou- 
sands; Peace, its tens of thousands. 

An Antonym is a word directly opposed in meaning to 
some other word. Ex., good, bad; white, black. 

Apostrophe is that figure which addresses the absent as 
if present, the inanimate as if animate, the dead as if alive. 
It always implies personification. Ex., Hail, holy Light, off- 
spring of heaven, first born! 

An Appositive is a word or group of words limiting the 
meaning of some term by denoting the same thing. Ex., 
Wolfe, the leader, was slain. 

An Appositional adjective is a word which is placed after 
its noun; it is really the attribute after some verb under- 
stood. It is often called an implied attribute. Ex., The 
garden, rich in its fruitage, attracted much attention. 

Argumentation is that kind of discourse which endeavors 
to establish the truth or falsity of a proposition. Ex. 
Burke's Conciliation with America. 

Articulate sounds are those which are distinctly and in- 
telligibly uttered, and are divided into words and syllables. 

An Attributive adjective is one that modifies its noun 
directly. Ex., The white rose is beautiful. 



210 A Teachers' Manual 

Attribute complement is a term which completes the 
predicate and refers to the object. Ex., He is a good man. 

An Attributive object is another expression for the ob- 
jective complement, a term which completes the predicate 
and belongs to the object. Ex., They made him captain. 

An Auxiliary verb is one which helps in the conjugation 
of other verbs. Ex., do, be. 

A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasted members 
are similarly constructed. Ex., Art may err, but Nature 
cannot miss. 

A Ballad is a form of poetry combining lyric and epic 
elements; it tells a story in verse. Ex., The Wreck of the 
Hesperus. 

A Barbarism is any violation of purity of diction. Ex., 
Clever in the sense of unselfish. 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
shows its relation in a sentence. 

Circumlocution is a round-about manner of expressing a 
thought. Ex., A diminutive specimen of humanity. 

A Class noun is a noun which may designate any one of 
a class or group. Ex., book. 

A Clause is a part of a: sentence having a subject and a 
predicate. Ex., Who steals my purse steals trash. 

Climax is that figure in which successive terms are ar- 
ranged so that they increase in importance. Ex., A day, an 
hour, an instant, may prove fatal. 

Cognate languages are those which have a similar struc- 
ture basis. Ex., English and German. 

A Cognate object is an object which embodies the same 
idea expressed in the verb. Ex., He dreamed a dream. 

A Colloquialism is an informal expression employed in 
conversation; it is generally applied to terms violating good 
usage. Ex.", Ain't. 

A Collective ncun is a name applied to a group taken as a 
whole, and is singular in form, but usually plural in mean- 
ing. Ex., jury, committee, class. 

A Comedy is a form of drama in which the character 
balance is preserved. Ex., Merchant of Venice. 



English Grammar and Analysis 211 

The Common form of the verb is the plain form with 
the usual auxiliaries. Ex., It has rained. 

Common gender indicates that the gender may be either 
masculine or feminine, inasmuch as neither gender is 
specified. Ex., parent. 

A Common noun is a name given to any one of a class. 
Ex., man. 

The Comparative Degree indicates a higher or lower 
quality or condition than that expressed by the positive. 
Ex., better, faster, less. 

Comparative grammar is that branch of grammar which 
compares the forms of a language with those of kindred 
languages. 

Comparison is that modification of an adjective or an ad- 
verb whicn denotes different degrees of quality, quantity, or 
intensity. Ex., good, better, best. 

A Complex-complex sentence is a complex sentence in 
whch either clause or both clauses may contain an addi- 
tonal subordinate clause. Ex., Some one has said that the 
milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we gather at the 
river?" (Here the noun clause as object contains another 
noun clause as attribute after should be.) 

A Complex-compound sentence is a compound sentence 
in which either member or both members may contain a 
subordinate clause. Ex., There is no getting along with 
Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he knocks you down with 
the butt of it. 

A Complex element is a modifier limited by one or more 
modifiers. Ex., Ine train moves very rapidly. 

A Complex sentence is one consisting of an independent 
clause and one or more dependent clauses. Ex., He that is 
wise will go. 

A Complete verb is one that does not require the addition 
of a complement to complete the thought. Ex., He sings. 

A Compound conjunctive pronoun is another term for the 
compound relative. Ex., whoever, whatever. 

A Compound-complex sentence is a complex sentence in 
whch the principal or the subordinate clause or both may 



212 A Teachers' Manual 

be compound. Ex., He returned when we most desired it 
and when he least expected it. 

A Compound element is a term consisting of two or more 
simple elements joined by co-ordinate conductions. Ex., 
John and James willgo. 

A Compound personal pronoun is one formed by suffixing 
self and selves to the simple personal pronoun. Ex., He 
himself will go. 

Compound personal pronouns have two uses: reflexive 
and emphatic. The reflexive use indicates that the subject 
directs the action back to itself; as, He hurt himself. The 
emphatic form is used to intensify some word in the sen- 
tence; as, He himself will go, or He will do that himself. 

A Compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or 
more co-ordinate, or independent members joined by co- 
ordinate conjunctions either expressed or understood. Ex., 
He may go, but we shall stay. 

A Compromise sentence is a sentence that is both 
periodic and loose. Ex., We shall go; but if you ask him, 
he will remain. 

Concord means agreement of grammatical forms. Ex., 
they saw him; him is used in the objective case because of 
the agreement of forms used after transitive verbs. 

Concord of cases is the use of the proper case in the 
proper relation to other words. 

A Concrete noun is a noun designating a specific object 
having qualities. Ex., chair. 

Conjugation is a regular arrangement of all the forms of 
a verb. 

A Conjunctive adverb is an adverb which performs the 
office of a connective. Ex., He came when he was asked. 

Conjunctive elements are words which fill the office of a 
connective. 

A Consonant sound is a vowel sound made in conjunction 
with some sonsonant. Ex., it. 

A Contracted compound sentence is a simple sentence 
with a compound subject or a compound predicate or both. 
Ex., John studies and recites. 



English Grammar and Analysis 213 

A Copulative conjunction is a co-ordinate that joins simi- 
lar elements of thought. Ex., and. 

A Dative object is an indirect object — one to or for which 
action is directed. Ex., They gave him a book. 

A Declarative sentence is one that makes a statement. 
Ex., He has gone. 

Declension is the variation of a noun or pronoun in two 
numbers to show the relation, or case use. The word means 
falling. In the history of grammar the nominative case was 
taken as the normal and all others were looked upon as 
fallings, or departures, from it, and hence by many are 
called the oblique cases. The word case literally means 
falling; it comes from the Latin verb cado, which means to 
fall, to fall down, to descend. 

A Defective verb is one that lacks some of the principal 
parts. Ex., may, ought, must, can, shall will. 

A Definitive adjective qualifies a noun or pronoun by de- 
fining, pointing out, or denoting number. Ex., The man has 
gone. 

Description is that type of discourse which presents a 
picture of something material or immaterial. Ex., Irving's 
picture of Ichabod Crane. 

A Derivative, or derived word is a word formed by join- 
ing some affix to the radical word, or is made by some in- 
ternal change in the word. Ex., truth-ful, go-ing, men. 

A Descriptive adjective is one that qualifies a noun or 
pronoun by expressing its qualities. Ex., The green trees 
are beautiful. 

Descriptive grammar is the service that properly classi- 
fies and arranges the phenomena of language. 

Diacritical marks are signs used to indicate the sound of 
a letter in a word. 

Dieresis is the separation of two vowels which otherwise 
might be taken as a diphthong. Ex., cooperate. 

Diction is the selection* of words made by a writer or 
speaker. It is often spoken of as a division of rhetoric 
treating the use of words. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels. Ex., foul. 



214 A Teachers' Manual 

A Distributive adjective is a definitive adjective denoting 
objects taken singly. Ex., Each one was in his place. 

Double object is an expression applied to (1) a direct and 
an indirect object, (2) an object and an objective comple- 
ment, (3) two direct objects. 

(1) He gave me a book. 

(2) They made him leader. 

(3) He studies arithmetic and grammar. 
(3) She taught John grammar. 

A Drama is a literary form presenting character in ac- 
tion; by nature it is presentative. Ex., Hamlet. 

Dual number, which is given to nouns in Old English, 
denotes two, only. Modern English has no such form, but 
retains trace of the dual number in such an expression as 
each other. 

An Element may consist of a word, a phrase, a clause. 
A word is sometimes called an element of the first class; a 
phrase, an element of the second class; a clause, an element 
of the third class. 

An Elementary sound is the simplest sound of* a lan- 
guage. Ex., o. 

An Elegiac poem, or elegy, is a poem that celebrates, or 
commemorates, the virtues of the dead. The best known 
elegies in English are Tennyson's In Memoriam, Emerson's 
Threnody, Arnold's Thyrsis, Shelley's Adonais, Milton's 
Lycidas, and Gray's Elegy. 

Ellipsis is the omission from a sentence of one or more 
words necessary to complete the grammatical construction. 
Ex., Away! 

The Emphatic form of the verb seeks to emphasize the 
present and the past tense by using the auxiliary do in 
connection with the verb given. Ex., He did go. 

Enallage is the substitution of one form of a word, as 
case, number, person, etc., for another. Ex., Herseemed; 
methinks; poor me. 

An Epic poem is one that recounts the deeds of heroic 
personages; it is by nature narrative. Ex., Milton's 
Paradise Lost. 

Epigram is that figure based upon brevity and surprise. 



English Grammar and Analysis 215 

It may present, (1) an apparent contradiction, (2) a play 
on words, (3) a sudden turn in the thought, (4) a truism, 
(5) an irrelevancy of associated ideas. (Genung.) Ex., 
Fact is fact. 

An Essay is a form of written exposition that treats in a 
literary manner some subject or phase of subject. Ex., 
Emerson's Self-Reliance. 

The Essential elements of a sentence consist of the sub- 
ject and the predicate. 

Etymology is that division of grammar treating of the 
derivation, origin, and classification, of words. 

Euphemism consists in presenting a harsh message in a 
softened or pleasing form. Ex., He has somewhat neglected 
the demands of veracity. 

Exclamation is that figure which emphasizes a statement 
by putting it in the form of an exclamation. Ex., How 
beautiful she is! 

An Exclamatory sentence expresses sudden and strong 
feeling. Ex., Oh, that we could go! 

An Expletive is a word unnecessary to the meaning, used 
to round out the sentence. Ex., There is a tree yonder. 

Exposition is that form of discourse which defines, un- 
folds, and explains. Ex., Bacon's Truth. 

Fable is a form of allegory, untrue to the literal facts of 
life, and having for its ohject a moral lesson. Ex., The 
Fable of the Sun and Wind. 

A Factitive object is an objective complement, or a word 
in the objective case indicating the new name given, or the 
new function added. Ex., They chose him leader. 

False syntax is the name given to any violation of good 
construction. 

Feminine gender denotes female. Ex., woman. 

A Figure of speech is an intentional deviation from the 
usual mode of expression for the sake of greater effect. 

A Finite form of the verb is a verb form limited by per- 
son and number. Ex., The wind blew. 

The First person indicates the person as speaking. 

A Flat adverb is one omitting the suffix ly. Ex., wide. 

The Future perfect tense indicates an act as completed 



216 A Teachers' Manual 

at, Defore, or in connection with, a certain future time. 
Ex., He will have gone by this time tomorrow. 

The Future tense indicates future time. Ex., He will 
return. 

Gender is that modification of noun or pronoun which 
denotes sex. 

General grammar is that branch of grammar which seeks 
to study the underlying principles and usages of all lan- 
guages. 

A Gerund is a noun participle; i. e., a participle filling 
the office of a verbal and a noun. Ex., He always profited 
by telling the truth. 

Government is the control that one word exercises over 
another. Ex., The verb, its participles and infinitives, and 
the preposition govern. 

Grammar as an art consists in an application of rules and 
principles of language in written and spoken use. 

Grammar as a science deals with the rules, principles, 
and usages of language. 

Historical grammar is that branch of grammar which 
seeks to explain the forms of language by tracing their 
history from the beginning. 

The Historical present is the use of the present tense to 
narrate something that happened in the past. Ex., I see 
before me the gladiator lie. (Byron in Childe Harold.) 

Homographs are words spelled alike, but differing in 
pronunciation and meaning. Ex., bow, to bend, and bow, an 
instrument to discharge arrows; lead, a verb; lead, a 
metallic substance; gill, part of a fish; gill a measure. 

A Homonym is a word having the same sound as another 
word, but a different meaning. Ex., ore, oar, e'er. 

Homophone is a name sometimes used instead of homo- 
nym. See examples above. 

A Hybrid word is one incorrectly formed through being 
derived from two linguistic sources. Ex., singist. 

Hyperbole is that figure which exaggerates for the sake 
of effect. Ex., The waves rolled mountain high. 

An Idea is a notion, an image, a concept. Ex., A man of 
wealth. 



English Grammar and Analysis 217 

An Idiom is an expression peculiar to a language. Ex., 
How do you do? 

The Imperative mood asserts a command or an entreaty. 
Ex., Come early. 

An Imperative sentence is one that expresses a command 
or an entreaty. Ex., Go. 

An Impersonal pronoun is a pronoun used idiomatically 
without a personal reference. Ex., It rains. 

An Impropriety is any violation of propriety of diction. 
Ex., try and for try to. • 

An Incomplete verb is a verb that requires the addition 
of a complement to complete the thought. The term "verb 
of incomplete predication" is sometimes used instead of "in- 
complete verb." Ex., He made a kite. It often happens 
that the same verb may sometimes be complete and some- 
times incomplete. 

An Indefinite adjective is a definitive indicating number 
in a general way. Ex., Some passengers were lost. 

An Indefinite pronoun is one that makes no direct refer- 
ence to an antecedent. Ex., Whatever is, is right. 

Independent elements are those which sustain no gram- 
matical relation to the remainder of the sentence. Ex., 
Charles, come here. 

The Indicative mode asserts a fact. Ex., He has gone. 

An Indirect object is one that receives the action of the 
verb indirectly through the prepositions to or for, expressed 
or understood. Ex., They gave him a book. 

An Infinitive form of the verb is one limited by person 
and number. Ex., They tried to see him. 

An Infinitive is a form of the verb expressing action, 
being, or state of being, in a general way without asserting 
it. Ex., He wished to go. 

Inflection is a variation of a word to indicate a change 
in meaning. Conjugation of the verb, comparison of the 
adjective and adverb, and declension of the noun and pro- 
noun are each processes of inflection. 

Irony is that figure in which the meaning expressed con- 
tradicts that intended. Ex., It is the divine right of kings 
to govern wrong. 



218 A Teachers' Manual 

An Irregular verb is one that usually forms its past tense 
and past participle by changing the spelling of the simple 
form of the verb instead of adding ed or d. Ex., go, went, 
gone. 

An Inseparable phrase is a phrase wherein the terms are 
not taken or construed separately. Ex., They walked hand 
in hand. It was cleaned through and through. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses sudden and 
strong feeling. Ex., Oh, the times! 

Interrogation is that figure which emphasizes a statement 
by putting it in the form of a question. Ex., Is life so dear 
and peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of 
chains and slavery? 

An Interrogative adjective is an adjective used in asking 
a question. Ex., Which book did he take? 

An Interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a ques- 
tion. Ex., Will he go? 

Literature is a permanent artistic expression through lan- 
guage of life and its meaning. 

Litotes is that figure which makes a statement by deny- 
ing the contrary. Ex., It is not an unworthy cause. 

A Localism is a term used only in one section of a coun- 
try. Ex., stoop for veranda or porch. 

Logic is the science that deals with the laws of correct 
thought. 

A Logical, or complex adjective element is the adjective 
term with all its modifiers. Ex., An exceedingly strange 
man passed us. 

A Logical, or complex objective element is the object 
with all its modifiers. Ex., He gave me a book full of the 
riches of the past. 

The Logical subject is the subject with all its modifiers; 
the logical predicate is the predicate with its modifiers. 
Ex., (1) An old man stood there; (2) He lives over the 
river. 

Long and short sentences, classifications much used in 
rhetoric, are defined by their respective names. 

A Loose sentence is a sentence that may be brought to 



English Grammar and Analysis 219 

a close before the end and still remain grammatically com- 
plete. Ex., He will go, if you ask him. 

A Lyric poem presents strong subjective emotion; it is by 
nature meditative. Ex., Longfellow's Rainy Day. 

A Mark-word is a definitive adjective used to point out 
some object or term. Ex., This man. 

Masculine gender denotes male. Ex., man. 

A Mass noun is a term applied to a heap or quantity. 
Ex., goods, furniture. 

A Material noun is a name applied to nouns denoting ma- 
terials. Ex., lumber, glass, tin, gold. 

A Metaphor is the use of one term for another because 
of resemblance; it is an implied simile. Ex., Friendship is 
a golden chain. 

Meter is the division of a verse into a definite number of 
accented and unaccented syllables. 

Metonymy is that figure in which one term is used for 
another because of relation. The relations may be, (1) 
the cause used for the effect; (2) the effect for the cause; 
(3) the container for that contained; (4) the sign for the 
thing signified; (5) the instrument for the user; (6) the 
material for the object made from it. Ex., He drank the 
fatal cup. 

Middle voice is a designation given to transitive verbs 
used reflectively. Ex., He hurt himself. 

A Mixed metaphor is a confusion of two or more met- 
aphors, or of the metaphorical and the literal. Ex., They 
kept tne ball rolling until it became a thorn in the side of 
Congress. 

A Modal adverb is one that denotes the manner in which 
the assertion is conceived. Some writers make four classes; 
viz., affirmative, negative illative, or causal, and potential. 
Examples, affirmative, certainly, indeed; negative, not; 
illative, therefore, hence; potential, possibly, probably. 

Mode, or mood, is that modification of the verb which 
denotes the manner of the assertion. 

A Modification is a variation of a word in meaning, form, 
or use. 



220 A Teachers' Manual 

A Modifier is a word or group of words joined to some 
term to limit or qualify its meaning. Ex., A good man. 

Modifying elements are elements which qualify the mean- 
ing of another term, and may consist of a word, a phrase, 
or a clause. 

A Multiplicative adjective is an adjective which denotes 
fold. Ex., It contained a two-fold purpose. 

Mutation is the influence a vowel in one syllable exer- 
cises upon a vowel in the preceding syllable so that the 
first vowel becomes changed into another sound. Frankish 
gradually merged into French. The presence of the i in the 
second syllable induced the change in the vowel of the 
preceding syllable. 

Narration is that form of discourse which relates in their 
time of occurrence the circumstances of some event. Ex., 
Robinson Crusoe. 

A Neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive; 
in other words it is an intransitive verb that cannot be 
made transitive. Ex., be. 

Neuter gender denotes neither male nor female. Ex., 
book. 

New verb is a name given to the regular verb. 

Nominative absolute case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
in an independent construction with a participle. This 
somewhat corresponds to the ablative absolute case in 
Latin and the genitive absolute (possessive absolute) case 
in Greek. Ex., The general being absent, the army was de- 
feated. Other independent constructions should not be 
classified as Nominative Absolute. 

Nominative Case is the modification of a noun or pronoun 
which shows its use as subject or attribute complement. 

Notional parts of speech are those which in themselves, 
or without reference to other terms, express ideas, and 
comprise the noun, the adjective, the verb, the adverb. 

A Notional verb is one that within itself embodies a com- 
plete idea. Ex., sings. 

A Noun is a name. 

A Novel is an artistic, fictitious prose story purporting 
to be an interpretation of life; it is usually rich and varied 



English Grammar and Analysis 221 

in character interest, and contains a plot element more or 
less complex in structure. Ex., Silas Marner. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
distinguishes one from more than one. 

A Numeral adjective is one which denotes simple number. 
Ex., Ten men were chosen. 

Objective case shows the use of a noun or pronoun as 
object complement after a verb, a preposition, an infinitive, 
a participle. Ex., They saw. him. 

Objective complement. See Oblique object. 

An Objective element is a word or a group of words used 
as the object of a verb, its participles or infinitives, and of 
a preposition. Ex., He told the truth. 

An Objective predicate adjective is another designation 
for the adjective used as an objective complement. Ex., He 
made the point clear. 

The Oblique cases are all cases except the nominative. 
The name oblique was given because these cases were con- 
ceived as falling away .from, or declining from, the erect, 
or normal case — the nominative. 

An Oblique object is a term which completes the predi- 
cate, and oelongs to the ohject. Objective complement is 
the usual name. 

An Obsolescent word is a word that is going out of use. 
Ex., methinks. 

An Obsolete word is a term that has gone out of use. 
Ex., wot. 

Old English is the general term given to the combined or 
common language of the Angles and Saxon. Broadly speak- 
ing, the name is used interchangeably with Anglo-Saxon. 

Old verb is a name given to the irregular verb. 

Onomatopoeia is that effect by which the sound sug- 
gests the meaning. Ex., Poe's The Bells. 

An Oration is a form of oral discourse, lofty and digni- 
fied in spirit, often rich in allusion, and' having for its ob- 
ject persuasion. Ex., Webster's Bunker Hill Orations. 

An Ordinal adjective is an adjective that indicates the 
position of an object in a series. Ex., This is the second 
attempt. 



222 A Teachers' Manual 

Orthoepy is that division of grammar which treats of 
articulate sounds and of their correct pronunciation. 

Orthography is the art of spelling correctly. 

A Parable is a form of allegory, true to the literal facts 
of life, and having for its object a spiritual truth. Ex., The 
Parable of the Prodigal Son. 

A Paradigm is an example of some inflection of a word, 
as the declension of a noun or the conjugation of a verb. 

A Paragraph is a sentence or a series of sentences de- 
veloping a single topic. 

Parallel is a sustained comparison or contrast. Ex., 
Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind; Pope con- 
strains his mind to the rules of composition. Dryden is 
sometimes vehement and rapid; Pope is always smooth, 
uniform, and gentle. 

Parsing consists in giving the classification, modifications, 
or properties, and the syntax of a word. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of 
the properties of a verb and an adjective or of a verb and 
a noun. Ex., They came shouting. 

Parts of Speech are the different divisions of words in a 
language based upon their differences in meaning. 

A Passive verb is a transitive verb in the passive voice. 
Ex., Tne house was struck by lightning. 

The Passive voice is that modification of a transitive 
verb which represents the subject as being acted upon or 
as receiving the action. Ex., The window was broken by 
the boy. 

The Past participle denotes action as completed, or in a 
completed state, at the time of the main verb in the sen- 
tence. Ex., The man, widely educated in the different lan- 
guages, gave a learned address. 

The Past perfect, or compound participle denotes action 
as completed entirely before the time of the leading verb 
to which the participle is related. Ex., The general having 
been killed, the forces withdrew. 

The Past perfect tense indicates an act as complete at, 
before, or in connection with, a certain past time. Ex., He 
had gone before his friend called. 



English Grammar and Analysis 223 

Past tense indicates past time.. Ex., He went there. 

A Pastoral poem is one presenting rustic life; it is lyric 
in nature, but often introduces a slight narrative element. 
Ex., The Cotter's Saturday Night. 

A Periodic sentence is one in which the leading thought 
is held in suspense until the end. Ex., If you ask him, he 
will go. 

Peritax is an expression to designate a parallel construc- 
tion in clauses. Ex., When spring comes, and when all life 
rejoices, etc. 

Person is that modification of a noun or (pronoun which 
distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, the person 
spoKen of. 

A Personal pronoun is one which represents by its form 
the- person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of. Ex., He will see us. 

Personification is that figure which elevates, (1) objects 
or abstract ideas to the rank of lower animals; (2) lower 
animals to the rank of man; (3) objects or abstract ideas 
to the rank of man. Ex., Let not Ambition mock their 
useful toil. 

Phonetics is the science treating sounds used in speech. 

A Phrase is a group of words, not expressing a crmplete 
thought, but an idea. Ex., He walked by the house. 

Pleonasm is the use of unnecessary grammatical ele- 
ments. Pleonasm is by no means a literary fault. Ex., Thy 
rod and thy staff, — they comfort me. The words preceding 
the comma are pleonastic. 

Plural number denotes more than one. Ex., boys. 

A Poetical foot is a definite division of a line into a num- 
ber of accented and unaccented syllables — not fewer than 
two or more than four. 

Poetry is a permanent artistic metrical expression of the 
meaning of life. 

The Positive degree indicates simple quality, quantity, 
or condition. Ex., good, fast, little 

A Positive adjective is a pronoun in the possessive case 
used as a modifier. Ex., That book is yours. 



224 A Teachers' Manual 

Possessive case denotes the use of a noun or a pronoun 
as a possessive modifier. Ex., John's book is here. 

The Potential mode asserts power, liberty, necessity, 
liability, probability, permission, possibility. Ex., He 
may go. 

Precision of diction is that quality resulting from the ac- 
curate use of words. 

A Predicate adjective is an adjective used as an attribute 
complement after a verb. Ex., He is sick. 

A Prefix is the part of a word placed before the radical. 
Ex., un-true. 

A Preposition is a word which shows the relation be- 
tween its object and some word modified by the phrase. 
Ex., He came into the room. 

The Present participle denotes action as progressing at 
the time of the principal verb in the construction. Ex., 
The man, shouting, attracted a crowd. 

The Present perfect tense indicates an act as completed 
at or before some present time; or as completed in connec- 
tion with present time. Ex., He has been late twice this 
week. 

The Present tense denotes present time. Ex., It rains. 

The Progressive form of the, verb is used to indicate that 
action, being, or state of being, is progressing, and is 
formed by using the auxiliary be with the present participle 
of the verb. Ex., She is walking. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun or of some 
substantive idea. However, it must be remembered that 
the pronoun may have a variety of constructions and sub- 
stantive ideas as antecedents. Ex., he. 

A Pronominal adjective is one which, without the use of 
an article, represents a noun. Ex., Many were there. 

A Proper adjective is an adjective resulting from the use 
of a proper noun as a modifier. The New England states 
are rich in tradition. 

A Proper noun is an especial name given to a particular 
person, place, or thing. Ex., John is here. 

A Proposition is a thought term consisting of a subject 
part and a predicate part. 



English Grammar and Analysis 225 

Propriety of diction is that quality resulting from the use 
of words in their proper sense. 

Prosody is that division of grammar which treats of the 
laws of versification. 

Provincialism is the same as localism. 

Purity of diction is that quality resulting from the use of 
present, national, and reputable words. 

A Radical, or radical word, is one that cannot be reduced 
to a simpler form. It is often called a primitive word. Ex., 
truth, go. 

Reciprocal adjectives are those used in pairs. Ex., They 
admire each other. 

Reciprocal pronouns are those which express a relation 
to one another. Ex., each other, one another. 

Redundancy is the use of too many words to express an 
idea, Ex., A very excellent lecture was given. 

A Redundant verb is one that has in its principal parts a 
regular and an irregular form. Ex., light, spell, dream, 
wake. 

A Reflexive verb is one that directs back the action upon 
the subject. Ex., He hurt himself. 

A Regular verb is one that forms its past indicative and 
past participle by adding ed or d to the simple form of the 
verb. Ex., walk-ed. 

Relational parts of speech are those which indicate re- 
lations to other words, and comprise the conjunction, the 
preposition, and the pronoun. 

A Relative adverb is an adverb which joins an adjective 
clause to the term the clause modifies. Ex., This is the 
place where they live. 

A Relative pronoun is a ipronoun which stands for some 
antecedent in the principal clause, and to it joins the 
modifying clause. Ex., This the house that Jack built. 

A Relative tense is one that indicates time in relation 
to other time. The present perfect, the past perfect, and 
the future perfect are the relative tenses. 

A Responsive is a word used as a reply to some question 
or in sanction of some ceremonial. Ex., yes, no. 



226 A Teachers' Manual 

Rhetoric is the art whereby thought may be most forcibly 
expressed. 

Rhyme is the agreement of sound either within lines of 
poetry or at their ends. 

Rhythm is the recurrence of stress at regular intervals. 

A Romance is a form of novel that presents its tale in an 
extravagant and highly colored manner. Ex., The Scarlet 
Letter. 

Scansion is the dividing of a verse into its poetical feet. 

Second person denotes the person addressed. Ex., You 
may come. 

A Sentence is a group "of words making complete sense. 

A Separable phrase is one wherein the terms are taken or 
construed separately. Ex., He went to the door. 

A Short-story is a form of prose fiction presenting one 
plot situation, one character interest, and one emotional 
coloring. Ex., Fall of the House of Usher. 

Significant sounds are sounds which convey a definite 
meaning, as opposed to those which are meaningless. 

A Simile is a comparison of objects essentially unlike. 
Ex., Friendship is like a golden chain. 

A Simple sentence is one consisting of a single proposi- 
tion. Ex., Give thy thoughts no tongue. 

Simplicity of diction is that quality resulting from the use 
of words easily understood. 

Singular number denotes one. Ex.. chair. 

A Solecism is a violation of the rules of syntax. 

Solemn style is that manner of writing used chiefly in 
serious composition dealing with religious themes. 

A Sonnet is a lyric poem consisting of fourteen lines, and 
strongly personal in its statement. The first eight lines are 
the octave, which present the background, setting, or in- 
troduction; the last six lines constitute the sestette, which 
present the application, deduction, or conclusion. 

A Strengthened copula is a term used by some writers 
to designate a copulative verb re-enforced by an infinitive. 
Ex.. He appeared to be sick. It is better to regard ap- 
peared as the incomplete predicate and to be sick, the at- 
tribute complement. 



English Grammar and Analysis 227 

A Strong verb is a verb which changes its form from 
within. Ex., run. It is in nearly every case identified with 
the irregular verb. However, knelt is irregular, but weak. 

Subjective case is the use of a noun or a pronoun as the 
subject of a verb. 

Subjective complement is another name for attribute 
complement. 

A Subjective predicate adjective is an adjective used as 
attribute complement. Ex., He is young. 

A Subjective predicate noun is a noun used' as attribute 
complement. Ex., He is the ruler. 

The Subjunctive mode asserts action as a supposition, a 
condition, a future contingency, a wish, a doubt. Ex., If he 
go, he will succeed. 

A Suffix is the part of a word placed after the radical. 
Ex., do-ing. 

The Superlative degree indicates the highest or the 
lowest quality, quantity, or condition. Ex., best, fastest, 
least. 

Synecdoche is that figure which puts (1) a part. for the 
whole, (2) the whole for a part, (3) a definitive number 
for an indefinite, and (4) an attribute, or quality, for the 
subject spoken of or iperson. Ex., A thousand fleets sweep 
o'er thy face in vain. 

A Synonym is a word having almost the same meaning 
as some other word. Ex., Sufficient and enough are 
synonyms. 

Synopsis is the regular arrangement of all the forms of 
the verb in one person and one number. 

Syntax treats of the grammatical correctness and con- 
struction of sentences. 

Synthesis is the constructing of a sentence from elements. 

Tautology is the repetition of a thought in different 
words. Ex., An old veteran. 

Tense is that modification of the verb which indicates 
the time of action. 

A Thesis is a form of written exposition treating ex- 
haustively a phase of a subject. 



228 A Teachers' Manual 

Third person denotes the person spoken of. Ex., He is 
the man. 

A Thought is a finished psychic process, having a subject 
term, a verbal term, and some complemental term. Ideas 
are to thoughts what words are to sentences. 

A Tragedy is a form of drama in which the character 
balance is destroyed. Ex., Hamlet. 

A Treatise is a form of written exposition treating ex- 
haustively an entire subject. Ex., Earle's Philology of the 
English Tongue. 

A Trigraph is a combination of three vowels pronounced 
as one sound. Ex., beau. 

A Verbal noun is either an infinitive or a participle filling 
the office of a rioun. Ex., To see is to believe. The par- 
ticiple as a verbal noun is often called an infinitive in -ing. 

Verse is a line composed of a definite number of accented 
and unaccented syllables. It is a single line of poetry. 

Versification treats of the laws governing the construc- 
tion of verse. This term is used interchangeably with 
prosody. 

Vision is that figure which presents the absent as if 
present. It involves no addressing any object or person. 
Ex., I see before me the gladiator lie. 

Voice is that modification of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

A Weak verb is one that changes its form by the addi- 
tion of letters or syllables to the simple present. Ex., 
walk, walked. Weak verbs are usually regular. 

A Word is a letter or a combination of letters which 
represent an idea. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Review Questions and Exercises- 

For most of the answers see the Grammatical Glossary. 

1. Classify nouns; classify common nouns. What is a 
substantive? 

2. What is a verbal noun? What is a participial noun? 
What is a class noun? A mass noun? An abstract noun? 
A collective noun? 

3. What is a descriptive adjective? A definitive? A pro- 
nominal? A reciprocal? A numeral? A cardinal? A mul- 
tiplicative? A demonstrative? An indefinite? A proper 
adjective? An interrogative? 

4. What is a regular verb? An irregular? A strong 
verb? A weak verb? A defective?" A redundant verb? A 
reflective verb? An agglutinative verb? An incomplete 
verb? A complete? An impersonal verb? A transitive? 
An intransitive? A passive verb? A finite verb? An in- 
finite? An old verb? A new verb? 

5. What are the different classes of adverbs? What is 
an intensive adverb? A flat adverb? A modal adverb? 
What are the different classes of modal adverb? 

6. What is a phrase preposition? 

7. What is a sentence word? 

8. What is an interjection? 

9. Define expletive. 

10. What is a correlative conjunction? Copulative? Dis- 
junctive? Alternative? Illative? A conjunctive adverb? 

11. Define the different modes. What do the different 
tenses denote? What is meant by sequence of tenses? 

12. What is the historical present? 
16. What is the dual number? 

229 



230 A Teachers' Manual 

14. Give the different classes of pronouns. What is a re- 
flexive pronoun? An emphatic? An adjective pronoun? A 
conjunctive pronoun? An impersonal? 

15. What is voice? Active voice? Middle voice? Pas- 
sive voice. 

16. Wnat is a complement? An adjective complement? 
An attribute? A predicate? An object? An objective com- 
plement? A nominative complement? 

17. What is a figure of speech? What is a mixed meta- 
phor? Define simile, metaphor, personification, allegory, 
parable, fable, synecdoche, metonymy, exclamation, inter- 
rogation, climax, anticlimax, irony, epigram, hyperbole, 
litotes, apostrophe, vision, antithesis, trope. 

18. Denne scansion, prosody, versification, rhythm, rhyme, 
loot, meter, iamabus, trochee, anapest, dactyl, pyrrhic, 
spondee,, amphibrach, tribrach, amphimacer, choriambus, 
sonnet, quatrain. 

19. Define poetry, drama, lyric, epic, comedy, tragedy, 
postoral, idyl, ballad. 

20. Define fiction, novel, autobiography, biography, 
memoirs, oration, essay, sketch, short-story, description, 
narration, sermon, lecture, formal essay, informal essay, 
paragraph, literature, romance. 

21. Write sentences with an infinitive used as the sub- 
ject; the attribute; the object complement; the objective 
complement; as an a/ppositive; as independent; as object 
of a preposition; as a complement of another infinitive; as 
adjective modifier; as adverbial modifier. See the classified 
sentences under the infinitive. 

22. What is a phrase? An idea? A thought? 

23. Write sentences having a phrase as subject; as at- 
tribute; as object; as objective complement; as independ- 
ent; as apposltive; as adjective modifier; as adverbial. 
Pages 38-41. 

24. What is a clause? A principal clause? A subordi- 
nate? An independent? A nounal? An adjective? An 



English Grammar and Analysis 231 

adverbial? A concessional? A clause of cause? Of evi- 
dence ? 

25. Write sentences having a noun clause as subject; as 
object; as objective complement; as object of an infinitive; 
objective of a participle; as appositive; object of a preposi- 
tion. Pages 5-8. 

26. Write a sentence with a clause modifying a verb; an 
adjective; an adverb. 

27. Write sentences having a clause of result; of pur- 
pose; of cause; of evidence; of condition; of time; of man- 
ner; of place; of degree. 

28. Write sentences having an adjective clause; an ad- 
jective clause introduced by a conjunctive adverb; intro- 
duced by a conjunctive pronoun; by a relative adverb. 
Page 10. 

29. Write a sentence with a clause entirely independent 
of the other part of the sentence; i. e. one sustaining no 
grammatical connection with the sentence. Page 5. 

30. Write a simple sentence; a complex sentence; a com- 
pound sentence. 

31. What is a complex-complex sentence? A complex- 
compound sentence? A compound-complex sentence? 

32. What is a loose sentence? A periodic? A long? A 
short? A balanced? A compromise sentence? 

33. Give and illustrate the various uses of as; than; the; 
but; what; that; before; until; why; up; out; so; like; 
worth; lest; if; which. 

34. Definte unity of sentence; coherence; strength; 
euphony; simplicity; perspicuity. 

3o. Distinguish between wit and humor; between satire 
and sarcasm. 

36. Define circumlocution; tautology; redundancy; ver- 
bosity; elegance; imagery. 

37. Write a sentence grammatically correct, but rhetori- 
cally incorrect, and show the rhetorical weakness. 



232 A Teachers' Manual 

Answer. — "Alchough all the crew were saved, they were 
all almost frozen." Here euphony is violated, and the 
wrong clause is made subordinate. The sentence should 
read, "1 hough the crew were nearly frozen, they were all 
saved." In the latter sentence the stronger idea is placed 
last. 

38. Define diction; purity, precision; propriety, sim- 
plicity; Americanism; vulgarism; barbarism; obsolete 
word; obsolescent word; Anglicism; hybrid word; simple 
word; compound; localism; provincialism; style; verbiage; 
Anglo-Saxon, Middle English; idiom; solecism; logic. 

39. When is a noun in the absolute case? 

39. Name and illustrate the ways of comparing adjectives. 
Answer. — By adding to the positive er and est; as old, 

older, oldest; by prefixing more and most — beautiful, more 
beautiful, most beautiful; by prefixing less and least — 
honorable, less honorable, least honorable; by irregular 
comparison — good, better, best. 

40. What parts of speech usually introduce interrogative 
sentences? 

Answer. — Interrogative pronouns: Who is he? 
Interrogative adverbs: Wliere did he go? 
Interrogative adjectives: WTiich book did he take? ( 

Prepositions: To whom did he speak? 
Verbs: Shall we go? 

In fact about all the parts of speech may be made il- 
lustrate the answer. 

41. What is inflection? What parts of speech are in- 
flected? 

42. Distinguish between ellipsis and abridgment. 
Answer. — Ellipsis is the omission from a sentence of one 

or more words necessary to the grammatical construction. 
Abridgment is the shortening of a sentence by substituting 
one expression for another. Elllipsis: "Go." Abridgment: 
"They know him to be honest" is an abridged form of "They 
know that he is honest." 



English Grammar and Analysis 233 

43. Write a sentence in which the subject is a phrase 
modified by a clause, and state the office of the clause. 

Answer. — To study that we may grow in intellectual 
power is commendable. To study is modified by the ad- 
verbial clause of purpose, that we . . . power. 

44. Write a sentence in which both the subject and the 
predicate are modified by an element of each class, and 
state the class, kind, and office, or function of each element. 

Answer. — That friend of mine, whom you met yesterday, 
has just left for the station so that he may be in good time 
for the train. Subject modifiers: That, first class; of mine, 
second class; whom you met yesterday, third class. Predi- 
cate modifiers: just, first class; for the station, second 
class; so that he may be in good time for the train, third 
class. 

45. Write a complex interrogative sentence. 
Answer. — Who is the man that we saw? 

46. Distinguish between grammar and rhetoric. See 
definitions. 

47. Write sentences using a participle attributively, ap- 
positively, predicatively, and absolutely. 

Answer. — (a) Hearing his voice I started, (b) His work, 
teaching the young, was agreeable, (c) The city lies sleep- 
ing, (d) Strictly speaking, he is not honorable. 

48. Give and define the different ways of expressing the 
present tense. 

Answer. — Progressive, emphatic, common. See defini- 
tions. 

49. Under what heads is grammar treated? 

answer. — Grammar is usually treated under four heads — 
orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. See Glossary. 

50. Write a sentence containing (a) a participle used as 
object of a verb and at the same time taking an object; 
(b) an adverb used; as a noun; (c) a verbal noun used as 
object of a preposition. 



234 A Teachers' Manual 

Answer. — (a) We should avoid injuring others, (b) He 
came from there, (c) See page 154. 

51. How are phrases classified as to form? As to use? 

- Answer. — Form: prepositional, infinitive, participle. Use: 
adverbial, adjective, noun. 

52. Distinguish between an interrogative pronoun and an 
interrogative adjective. See definitions. 

53. Define derivative, affix, synonym, antonym, homonym, 
homophone, homograph, digraph, dipthong, primative, or 
root, word, prefix, suffix, elementary sound. 

54. What parts of speech may connect clauses? 

Answer. — (a) Prepositions, (b) conjunctions, (c) con- 
junctive adverbs, (d) relative pronouns, (e) copulative 
verbs. 

(a) Have birds any sense of why they sing? 

(b) He may go, but we shall remain. 

(c) He would give no reason why he went. 

(d) He is a person whom we all respect. 

(e) His thought was, "Shall I go?" 

55. Distinguish between grammar as an art and as a 
science. 

Answer. — As an art, grammar has to do with the applica- 
tion of rules of syntax to actual composition, either spoken 
or written. As a science, grammar investigates and studies 
the forms, uses and relations of words without any refer- 
ence to applying such rules. 

56. What is pleonasm? Write a sentence illustrating the 
reputable use of pleonasm. 

57. Show that a transitive verb may become intransitive, 
and the reverse. 

Answer. — (a) He sings well, (b) He flies his kite. 

58. When are participles used as attribute complements? 

59. What attributes are often followed by noun clauses? 
Is the preposition expressed or understood? P. 7. 



English Grammar and Analysis 235 

60. Give the laws of modication of adverbial clauses of 
time, place, manner, degree, in case the conjunctive adverb 
is not used with an abverb correlate. Give the law in case 
the adverb correlate is used. Pp. 34-36. 

61. Give the law covering the use of connectives in 
clauses of cause, condition, concession, purpose. 

62 Write a sentence having an adverbial object after a 
participle. P. 133, Sentence 8. 

63. Define and illustrate analysis and synthesis. Which 
of these phrases of grammar should receive the greater em- 
phasis? Page 176. 

64. When is an adjective used attributively? When 
predicatively? 

Answer. — An adjective is used attributively when it modi- 
fies its noun directly. It is a cold day. An adjective is used 
predicatively when it is a part of the predicate. The day 
is cold. 

65. What is meant by the term implied predicate? Im- 
plied attribute? 

66. Define objective subject? Objective attribute? 

67. W T hat is the nominative absolute case? 

68. What is an oblique object? 



INDEX 



A as a Preposition, 159 

A, other Uses of, 206 

Adjectives resembling: Partici- 
ples, 168; Observations on, 
169 

Adverb, Conjunctive, 10; Rela- 
tive, 10 

Adverbial Clauses, 28; Laws 
Governing-, 34 

As, 153; S., 34; Uses of, 203 

Ask, Uses of, 79 

As if, Use of, 94 

Attribute Complement, 171 

Before, Uses of, 204 

But, Uses of, 201 

Clauses: — Noun, 5; Construc- 
tions of Noun Clauses, 6, 7; 
Manner, 26; Degree, 27; 
Cause, 29; Evidence, 29; 
Concession, 30; Condition, 
31; Purpose, 31; Result, 33; 
Adjective, 8 and 13; Re- 
strictive, 8; Non-Restrict- 
ive, 9; Noun, 13; Adverbial, 
19 

Complements, 171 

Double Object, 172 

Glossary, 207 

If, Uses of, 206 

Infinitives: — Origin and Na- 
ture of, 37; Forms of, 37; as 
a Noun, 38; an Adjective, 
40; an Adverb, 40; Observa- 
tions on, 42; Independent 
Use of, 42; Observations on, 
43; Result and Consequence, 
44 v 



Infinitive as Adjective Modi- 
fier, 113; Observations on, 
115 

Infinitive as Adverbial Modi- 
fier, 121; Observations on, 
123 

Infinitive in Apposition, 70; 
Observations on, 74 

Infinitive as Attribute, 59; Ob- 
servations on, 62 

Infinitive as Object Comple- 
ment, 103; Observations on, 
106 

Infinitive as Object of a Prep- 
osition, 120; Observations 
on, 120 

Infinitive as Subject, 52; Ob- 
servations on, 54 

Intensive Adverb, 31 

Lest, Uses of, 206 

Letter "Writing, 185: — Inside 
Address, 187; Salutation, 
188; Body, 189; Complimen- 
tary Close, 190; Stationery, 
191; General Observations, 
193; Second Form of Busi- 
ness Letter, 194; Formal 
Note, 195; Informal Note, 
196; Superscription, 198 

Like, Uses of, 205 

Near, 82; 137, Sentence 27 

Nouns in Apposition with Ad- 
jective Pronouns, 110, S., 38 

Nouns resembling Participles, 
167; Observations on, 168 

Object Complement, 172 

Objective Complement, 173 

Out, Uses of, 205 



236 



English Grammar and Analysis 



237 



Parsing, 175: — Models for 
Parsing- Nouns, 176; Verbs, 
177; Infinitives, 178; Parti- 
ciples, 179; Adjectives, 180; 
Pronouns, 180; Prepositions, 
181; Conjunctions, 182; Ad- 
verbs, 183; Interjections, 
183; Expletives, 184 

Participles, 127: — Noun Parti- 
ciple, Adjective Participle; 
Verbal Nouns; Verbal Ad- 
jectives; Gerund; History 
of, 128; Distinction between 
the Participle and the Noun 
and the Adjective, 128 

Participle as Adjective Attri- 
bute Complement, 132; Ob- 
servations on, 134 

Participle as Attribute Com- 
plement-Noun, 165; Obser- 
vations on, 166 

Participle as Adjective Ele- 
ment, 137; Observations on, 
139 

Participle as Independent 
Phrases, 142; Observations 
on, 143 

Participle as Object Comple- 
ment, 131; Observations, 132 

Participle as Objective Com- 
plement, 145; Observations 
on, 147 



Participle as Object of Prepo- 
sition, 154; Observations on, 
156 

Participle as Subject, 129; Ob- 
servations on, 130 

Phrase Preposition, 42, 49, 57, 
58 

Review Questions, 229 

Sentence, Complex, 5 

Sentence Word, 183 

So, Uses of, 205 

Subordinate-Conjunctive Pro- 
noun, 31 

Teach, 69, 80 

Than, Uses of, 36, 203 

That, Uses of, 202 

The, Uses of, 204 

Until, Uses of, 21, 204 

Up, Uses of, 205 

What, Uses of, 201 

Whatever, 31 

Whatsoever, 77 

Which, Uses of, 202 

Why, Uses of, 204 

Worth, Uses of, 158, S., 8, 9; 
206 



SEP 27 W 2 



